On the difference between exclosures and enclosures in ecology and the environment

Rehabilitation of degraded land in arid and semiarid environments often involves excluding livestock from degraded sites, creating what are usually but unfortunately not consistently, called _exclosures_. Their main objective is to allow native vegetation to regenerate as a means of providing fodder and woody biomass, to reduce soil erosion and to increase rain water infiltration. We are concerned that some of the alternative names for this practice that are reported in the international literature, including _closed area_, _area closure_ and _enclosure_, may lead to confusion and misunderstanding, especially when these are used as synonyms. Here we aim to illustrate the difference between exclosures and enclosures using recent ecological and environmental literature and provide guidance for their proper use

A remote sensing technique for measuring spatio-temporal rainfall patterns in a mountainous region with a low density rain gauge network

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Quality Assessment of Cattle Milk in Adea Berga and Ejerie Districts of West Shoa Zone, Ethiopia

This study was conducted in Adea Berga and Ejerie districts. The objectives of the study were to assess raw milk hygienic handling practices and constraints associated with milk quality. A total of 180 smallholder milk producers farmers, two dairy cooperatives, one dairy cooperative union, two milk processors and ten consumers were interviewed to collect the required information using semi-structured questionnaires and focused group discussions. About 65% the respondents were removed manure daily While 35% were removed three times a week. Most of the interviewed dairy producers 69.4% washed their hands before milking while the rest 30.6% did not wash their hands. About 62.2% of the dairy producers washed their cow’s udder before milking and 37.8% were not washing. Nearly half of the respondents 46.7% were did not use towels for udder drying, 15.6% used common towel and 37.7 % reported they did not practice udder washing and drying. All of the interviewed milk producer farmers were used plastic made milk containers during milking and transported the milk to collection centers. Dairy cooperatives, Dairy cooperative union and processors used aluminum container for milk transportation and storage. Almost all of the dairy producers 98 % and milk collectors washed milking utensils after every use. In Ejerie district 3.3% of smallholder dairy producers were cleaned their milking utensil before and after usage. About 77% of the respondent washed their milk container with cold water and soap while 23% used hot water and soap. All primary dairy cooperatives and 70 % of consumers were washed their milk container with cold water and soap. The remaining 30% of the interviewed consumers were washed their milk utensils with warm water and soap. Smallholder producers used different water sources used for cleaning purpose tap water 55%, river 28% and Hand dug well 17%. All small holder milk producers used traditional cooling method. Chemical composition (fat and water) content were the major milk quality criteria to accept or rejected the milk. Major milk quality constraints in the study areas were limited awareness on hygienic handling of milk, lack of cooling facility, shortage of clean water , lack of effective quality control system and absence of quality based payment system. Thus, Awareness creation and trainings should be needed milk hygienic handling practices and introduce quality based payment improving milk quality

Assessing spatio-temporal rainfall variability in a tropical mountain area (Ethiopia) using NOAA's rainfall estimates

Seasonal and interannual variation in rainfall can cause massive economic loss for farmers and pastoralists, not only because of deficient total rainfall amounts but also because of long dry spells within the rainy season. The semi-arid to sub-humid mountain climate of the North Ethiopian Highlands is especially vulnerable to rainfall anomalies. In this article, spatio-temporal rainfall patterns are analysed on a regional scale in the North Ethiopian Highlands using satellite-derived rainfall estimates (RFEs). To counter the weak correlation in the dry season, only the rainy season rainfall from March till September is used, responsible for approximately 91% of the annual rainfall. Validation analysis demonstrates that the RFEs are well correlated with the meteorological station (MS) rainfall data, i.e. 85% for RFE 1.0 (1996-2000) and 80% for RFE 2.0 (2001-2006). However, discrepancies indicate that RFEs generally underestimate MS rainfall and the scatter around the trendlines indicates that the estimation by RFEs can be in gross error. A local calibration of RFE with rain gauge information is validated as a technique to improve RFEs for a regional mountainous study area. Slope gradient, slope aspect, and elevation have no added value in the calibration of the RFEs. The estimation of monthly rainfall using this calibration model improved on average by 8%. Based upon the calibration model, annual rainfall maps and an average isohyet map for the period 1996-2006 were constructed. The maps show a general northeast-southwest gradient of increasing rainfall in the study area and a sharp east-west gradient in its northern part. Slope gradient, slope aspect, elevation, easting, and northing were evaluated as explanatory factors for the spatial variability of annual rainfall in a stepwise multiple regression with the calibrated average of RFE 1.0 as dependent variable. Easting and northing are the only significant contributing variables (R-2=0.86), of which easting has proved to be the most important factor (R-2=0.72). The scatter around the individual trendlines of easting and northing corresponds to an increase in rainfall variability in the drier regions. Despite the remaining underestimation of rainfall in the southern part of the study area, the improved estimation of spatio-temporal rainfall variability in a mountainous region by RFEs is valuable as input to a wide range of scientific models