Agronomic Management of Indigenous Mycorrhizas

Many of the advantages conferred to plants by arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) are associated to the ability of AM plants to explore a greater volume of soil through the extraradical mycelium. Sieverding (1991) estimates that for each centimetre of colonized root there is an increase of 15 cm3 on the volume of soil explored, this value can increase to 200 cm3 depending on the circumstances. Due to the enhancement of the volume of soil explored and the ability of the extraradical mycelium to absorb and translocate nutrients to the plant, one of the most obvious and important advantages resulting from mycorrhization is the uptake of nutrients. Among of which the ones that have immobilized forms in soil, such as P, assume particular significance. Besides this, many other benefits are recognized for AM plants (Gupta et al, 2000): water stress alleviation (Augé, 2004; Cho et al, 2006), protection from root pathogens (Graham, 2001), tolerance to toxic heavy metals and phytoremediation (Audet and Charest, 2006; Göhre and Paszkowski, 2006), tolerance to adverse conditions such as very high or low temperature, high salinity (Sannazzaro et al, 2006), high or low pH (Yano and Takaki, 2005) or better performance during transplantation shock (Subhan et al, 1998). The extraradical hyphae also stabilize soil aggregates by both enmeshing soil particles (Miller e Jastrow, 1992) and producing a glycoprotein, golmalin, which may act as a glue-like substance to adhere soil particles together (Wright and Upadhyaya, 1998). Despite the ubiquous distribution of mycorrhizal fungi (Smith and Read, 2000) and only a relative specificity between host plants and fungal isolates (McGonigle and Fitter, 1990), the obligate nature of the symbiosis implies the establishment of a plant propagation system, either under greenhouse conditions or in vitro laboratory propagation. These techniques result in high inoculum production costs, which still remains a serious problem since they are not competitive with production costs of phosphorus fertilizer. Even if farmers understand the significance of sustainable agricultural systems, the reduction of phosphorus inputs by using AM fungal inocula alone cannot be justified except, perhaps, in the case of high value crops (Saioto and Marumoto, 2002). Nurseries, high income horticulture farmers and no-agricultural application such as rehabilitation of degraded or devegetated landscapes are examples of areas where the use of commercial inoculum is current. Another serious problem is quality of commercial available products concerning guarantee of phatogene free content, storage conditions, most effective application methods and what types to use. Besides the information provided by suppliers about its inoculum can be deceiving, as from the usually referred total counts, only a fraction may be effective for a particular plant or in specific soil conditions. Gianinazzi and Vosátka (2004) assume that progress should be made towards registration procedures that stimulate the development of the mycorrhizal industry. Some on-farm inoculum production and application methods have been studied, allowing farmers to produce locally adapted isolates and generate a taxonomically diverse inoculum (Mohandas et al, 2004; Douds et al, 2005). However the inocula produced this way are not readily processed for mechanical application to the fields, being an obstacle to the utilization in large scale agriculture, especially row crops, moreover it would represent an additional mechanical operation with the corresponding economic and soil compaction costs. It is well recognized that inoculation of AM fungi has a potential significance in not only sustainable crop production, but also environmental conservation. However, the status quo of inoculation is far from practical technology that can be widely used in the field. Together a further basic understanding of the biology and diversity of AM fungi is needed (Abbott at al, 1995; Saito and Marumoto, 2002). Advances in ecology during the past decade have led to a much more detailed understanding of the potential negative consequences of species introductions and the potential for negative ecological consequences of invasions by mycorrhizal fungi is poorly understood. Schwartz et al, (2006) recommend that a careful assessment documenting the need for inoculation, and the likelihood of success, should be conducted prior to inoculation because inoculations are not universally beneficial. Agricultural practices such as crop rotation, tillage, weed control and fertilizer apllication all produce changes in the chemical, physical and biological soil variables and affect the ecological niches available for occupancy by the soil biota, influencing in different ways the symbiosis performance and consequently the inoculum development, shaping changes and upset balance of native populations. The molecular biology tools developed in the latest years have been very important for our perception of these changes, ensuing awareness of management choice implications in AM development. In this context, for extensive farming systems and regarding environmental and economic costs, the identification of agronomic management practices that allow controlled manipulation of the fungal community and capitalization of AM mutualistic effect making use of local inoculum, seem to be a wise option for mycorrhiza promotion and development of sustainable crop production

f(R) theories

Over the past decade, f(R) theories have been extensively studied as one of the simplest modifications to General Relativity. In this article we review various applications of f(R) theories to cosmology and gravity - such as inflation, dark energy, local gravity constraints, cosmological perturbations, and spherically symmetric solutions in weak and strong gravitational backgrounds. We present a number of ways to distinguish those theories from General Relativity observationally and experimentally. We also discuss the extension to other modified gravity theories such as Brans-Dicke theory and Gauss-Bonnet gravity, and address models that can satisfy both cosmological and local gravity constraints.Comment: 156 pages, 14 figures, Invited review article in Living Reviews in Relativity, Published version, Comments are welcom

A new species of Stenobiella Tillyard (Neuroptera, Berothidae) from Australia

Stenobiella variola sp. n., a new species of beaded lacewing (Neuroptera: Berothidae), is described and figured from south-eastern Australia. A preliminary key to Stenobiella species is presented

Energy and Yield Evaluation of an Alcohols and Hydrocarbons Production Plant using Rh-based Catalysts with Different Promoters

Synthesis gas (syngas), mainly constituted by carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen gas (H2), is produced mostly through biomass gasification and methane reforming. In the last decade, the thermochemical route to produce ethanol and higher alcohols from syngas has been gaining space as a possible route to produce synthetic fuels and additives. This kind of process presents a series of advantages as: short-time reaction, abundant and lower-price feedstocks, the use of lignin and the almost complete conversion of syngas, having the potential to exceed ethanol production by fermentative route. Aiming to produce ethanol through thermochemical route, a singular process (a small-scale plant with capacity to process 100 kmol/h of syngas) was proposed for a first evaluation using the commercial simulator ASPEN Plus v7.3. Four different Rh-based catalysts were tested in the process (RhFe, RhLa, RhLaV, and RhLaFeV), trying to take advantage of the characteristics of Rh-based catalysts as high ethanol selectivity and hydrocarbons production. The process design took into account the reactor selectivity and conversion. Through sensitivity analysis, the downstream process were configured searching for the best possible design of separation steps, making possible to obtain ethanol (>99 % wt.), methanol (>90 % wt.), Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG, mixture of C2H6, C3H8 and C4H10, > 99 % wt.) and pentane (>95% wt.)

Inter-relações de nitrogênio e fósforo na capacidade de combinação e na seleção em milho

Tem sido observada, em milho, a redução da absorção de nitrogênio (N), por causa da deficiência de fósforo (P), mas o efeito dessa combinação na seleção de genitores ainda precisa de estudos. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar os efeitos das inter-relações de P e N na capacidade de combinação e seleção de genitores de milho. As 28 combinações híbridas (CH), obtidas de um dialelo completo entre oito genótipos de milho e três testemunhas, foram avaliadas em quatro ambientes, obtidos pelas combinações de alta e baixa disponibilidade de P e N. Avaliaram-se o rendimento de grãos (RG) e as características secundárias: altura de plantas (AP) e espigas (AE), índice de colheita (IC), peso volumétrico (PV), prolificidade (PRL) e massa seca da parte aérea (MSPA). O efeito do estresse de N no RG foi similar em baixo e alto P. O genótipo P3041 apresentou alto RG em todos os ambientes. As correlações genéticas das características secundárias com o RG foram afetadas pelos ambientes. Em alto P, a capacidade geral de combinação (CGC) foi significativa para RG apenas em alto N. Em baixo P, a CGC apresentou significância em ambos os níveis de N. Os genótipos AG1051 e P3041 tiveram estimativas positivas de CGC em todos os ambientes. Conclui-se que, para o rendimento de grãos, a CGC somente não é importante em alto P e baixo N e a CEC não é importante em estresse de P ou N

The challenge of converting biomass polysacharides into levulinic acid through heterogeneous catalytic processes

The differences between a biorefinery and an oil refinery are determined by the higher oxygen content of the biorefinery´s biomass, its high degree of functionalization, its low thermal stability, its polar components, which are mostly acidic, its highly heterogeneous structure, and its quality variation as result of genotypic and phenotypic characteristics. Levulinic acid (LA) is one of the main high value-added chemicals that can be produced from lignocellulosic biomass as raw material. The main challenges for the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to levulinic acid are related to the improvement of the technologies to obtain a pure and cost-competitive product, the design and use of efficient heterogeneous catalysts, and the improvements in the selectivity and useful life of the catalyst. This is an up-to-date review of the state of knowledge about the heterogeneous catalytic conversion of biomass into LA, addressing the technical hurdles that impede the attainment of high yields. This work outlines the chemistry of LA synthesis and discusses in detail the influence of the lignocellulosic raw material, reaction time, temperature, solvent according to the chemical pathway, and efficiency of the chosen Lewis and Brønsted solid acid catalysts.Fil: Covinich, Laura Gabriela. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Químicas y Naturales. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones; ArgentinaFil: Clauser, Nicolás Martín. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Químicas y Naturales. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones; ArgentinaFil: Felissia, Fernando Esteban. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Químicas y Naturales. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones; ArgentinaFil: Vallejos, María Evangelina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Químicas y Naturales. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones; ArgentinaFil: Area, Maria Cristina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Químicas y Naturales. Instituto de Materiales de Misiones; Argentin