Space debris generation in GEO: Space materials testing and evaluation

The aim of this work is to evaluate what happens to the spacecraft materials beyond the spacecraft End of Life. A review of spacecraft external materials and effects of space environment is presented. This paper results from a continued study on spacecraft material degradation, and space debris formation in geostationary orbit (GEO). In this paper a 20-year GEO dose profile that combines simultaneous UV, particles irradiation and thermal cycling was applied to a set of external spacecraft materials. These materials comprised MLI assemblies, Velcros fixation and spacecraft painting. The evaluation of these external spacecraft materials, exposed to simulated space environment have confirmed the criticality of degradation of MLI, Velcros fixation and painting, with delamination mechanisms and particulate contamination. The synergy of space radiation (particles, UV) and thermal cycling ages the material and induces mechanical stress, causing creation of brittle surfaces, cracks and delamination. These phenomena cause serious damage to exposed surfaces, changing the surfaces thermo-optical properties, and may induce the generation of space debris. In particular, experimental results show the delamination of internal MLI layers and the severe degradation of the Velcros

The Athena x-ray optics development and accommodation

The Athena mission, under study and preparation by ESA as its second Large-class science mission, requires the largest X-ray optics ever flown, building on a novel optics technology based on mono crystalline silicon. Referred to as Silicon Pore Optics technology (SPO), the optics is highly modular and benefits from technology spin-in from the semiconductor industry. The telescope aperture of about 2.5 meters is populated by around 700 mirror modules, accurately co-aligned to produce a common focus. The development of the SPO technology is a joint effort by European industrial and research entities, working together to address the challenges to demonstrate the imaging performance, robustness and efficient series production of the Athena optics. A technology development plan was established and is being regularly updated to reflect the latest developments, and is fully funded by the ESA technology development programmes. An industrial consortium was formed to ensure coherence of the individual technology development activities. The SPO technology uses precision machined mirror plates produced using the latest generation top quality 12 inch silicon wafers, which are assembled into rugged stacks. The surfaces of the mirror plates and the integral support structure is such, that no glue is required to join the individual mirror plates. Once accurately aligned with respect to each other, the surfaces of the mirror plates merge in a physical bonding process. The resultant SPO mirror modules are therefore very accurate and stable and can sustain the harsh conditions encountered during launch and are able to tolerate the space environment expected during operations. The accommodation of the Athena telescope is also innovative, relying on a hexapod mechanism to align the optics to the selected detector instruments located in the focal plane. System studies are complemented by dedicated technology development activities to demonstrate the capabilities before the adoption of the Athena mission

The discrimination between cosmic positrons and protons with the Transition Radiation Detector of the AMS experiment on the International Space Station

The aim of this thesis is the development and validation of a particle identification method with the Transition Radiation Detector (TRD) of the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer AMS-02 to allow for the determination of the positron fraction in the cosmic lepton flux. Independent measurements indicate that a significant amount of about 23% of the energy density in the universe consists of an unknown mass contribution, the so-called Dark Matter. The Neutralino, as the most popular Dark Matter particle candidate, may produce an additional signal in the spectrum of cosmic rays. The fraction of positrons in the cosmic lepton flux possibly contains such a Dark Matter signal at high particle momenta. The currently most precise measurements in the region of this excess are provided by the satellite-borne PAMELA and Fermi detectors. Momentum-dependent systematic uncertainties, especially the mis-identification of protons as positrons, could imitate the signal. However, if this positron excess is produced by Dark Matter the fraction should decrease above a theoretical energy threshold to the expectations, based on particle propagation. The energy region measured up to now does not show such a progress. Due to its significantly increased event statistics and its capability to measure up to higher particle energies, this signature could be observed with AMS-02. The number of events, which can be recorded by a detector, is limited by the combination of aperture and observable solid angle, quantified by the geometrical acceptance, and the observation time. As the cosmic particle flux follows a power-law in particle momentum with exponent gamma almost equal to -3, the observable momentum interval is thus constrained by statistics. Due to its large geometrical acceptance of about 0.5 m2 sr, its long observation time of at least 9 years and its high proton suppression factor of 1000000 AMS-02 will record large and clean lepton samples and thus provide a precise measurement of the cosmic positron fraction up to particle momenta less or equal to 1 TeV. The combination of electromagnetic calorimeter (ECAL) and TRD is necessary to provide the high proton suppression factor at high momenta. This work describes the particle identification with the TRD and evaluates its performance on pre-selected events from a dataset taken on the International Space Station and from data, which have been recorded in a beamtest before the transport to the space station. The necessary algorithms, starting from event reconstruction through detector calibration up to particle identification are discussed. The TRD independent event pre-selection is used to determine the sea-level muon flux by the combination of muon event rate, as recorded on ground at Kennedy Space Center, and detector acceptance, extracted from simulations. Additionally, low-energy data recorded on the International Space Station is used to investigate the geomagnetic field. Here, the rigidity cutoff, below which particles are deflected by the geomagnetic field too much to reach the detector, is determined as function of geodetic latitude and longitude. The performance of the TRD event reconstruction on pre-selected data event samples is compared to simulations. The efficiency of consecutive reconstruction steps, assigned to geometric effects, event reconstruction, quality selection and matching of tracks is determined. The energy depositions on a track are used to disentangle lepton and proton events. Calibration algorithms are introduced to provide invariant energy deposition signal by correcting for the signal variation due to gas gain, path length and particle momentum. The performance of the calibration algorithms is evaluated by signal stability studies and their impact on the TRD particle identification performance. The TRD efficiency and proton suppression studies performed in this work are crucial steps towards the precise measurement of cosmic lepton fluxes and the cosmic positron fraction

The discrimination between cosmic positrons and protons with the Transition Radiation Detector of the AMS experiment on the International Space Station

The aim of this thesis is the development and validation of a particle identification method with the Transition Radiation Detector (TRD) of the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer AMS-02 to allow for the determination of the positron fraction in the cosmic lepton flux. Independent measurements indicate that a significant amount of about 23% of the energy density in the universe consists of an unknown mass contribution, the so-called Dark Matter. The Neutralino, as the most popular Dark Matter particle candidate, may produce an additional signal in the spectrum of cosmic rays. The fraction of positrons in the cosmic lepton flux possibly contains such a Dark Matter signal at high particle momenta. The currently most precise measurements in the region of this excess are provided by the satellite-borne PAMELA and Fermi detectors. Momentum-dependent systematic uncertainties, especially the mis-identification of protons as positrons, could imitate the signal. However, if this positron excess is produced by Dark Matter the fraction should decrease above a theoretical energy threshold to the expectations, based on particle propagation. The energy region measured up to now does not show such a progress. Due to its significantly increased event statistics and its capability to measure up to higher particle energies, this signature could be observed with AMS-02. The number of events, which can be recorded by a detector, is limited by the combination of aperture and observable solid angle, quantified by the geometrical acceptance, and the observation time. As the cosmic particle flux follows a power-law in particle momentum with exponent gamma almost equal to -3, the observable momentum interval is thus constrained by statistics. Due to its large geometrical acceptance of about 0.5 m2 sr, its long observation time of at least 9 years and its high proton suppression factor of 1000000 AMS-02 will record large and clean lepton samples and thus provide a precise measurement of the cosmic positron fraction up to particle momenta less or equal to 1 TeV. The combination of electromagnetic calorimeter (ECAL) and TRD is necessary to provide the high proton suppression factor at high momenta. This work describes the particle identification with the TRD and evaluates its performance on pre-selected events from a dataset taken on the International Space Station and from data, which have been recorded in a beamtest before the transport to the space station. The necessary algorithms, starting from event reconstruction through detector calibration up to particle identification are discussed. The TRD independent event pre-selection is used to determine the sea-level muon flux by the combination of muon event rate, as recorded on ground at Kennedy Space Center, and detector acceptance, extracted from simulations. Additionally, low-energy data recorded on the International Space Station is used to investigate the geomagnetic field. Here, the rigidity cutoff, below which particles are deflected by the geomagnetic field too much to reach the detector, is determined as function of geodetic latitude and longitude. The performance of the TRD event reconstruction on pre-selected data event samples is compared to simulations. The efficiency of consecutive reconstruction steps, assigned to geometric effects, event reconstruction, quality selection and matching of tracks is determined. The energy depositions on a track are used to disentangle lepton and proton events. Calibration algorithms are introduced to provide invariant energy deposition signal by correcting for the signal variation due to gas gain, path length and particle momentum. The performance of the calibration algorithms is evaluated by signal stability studies and their impact on the TRD particle identification performance. The TRD efficiency and proton suppression studies performed in this work are crucial steps towards the precise measurement of cosmic lepton fluxes and the cosmic positron fraction

Light scattering model for small space debris particles

We have developed a scattering model allowing to study interaction of light with particles populating the near-Earth environment: satellite explosion remnants, collisional debris, particles detached from peeling paint surfaces, and ejecta resulting from micrometeorite bombardment. In its present configuration the model accounts for rough needles, grains, and plates as primary shape elements. More complex shapes are built upon combining them. The model is compared and validated against laboratory measurements. The studied samples include a set of space debris analogue samples obtained from the controlled MIRAD (Microparticle impact related attitude disturbances) experiment that collided solar cell panels with a projectile. The resulting samples are mostly carbon needles and curved aluminium sheets. We have both measured and modelled the scattering of light from a set of these samples. The model agrees rather well with the measurements. The shape and orientation of the particles are found to be the main contributor in how light is scattered, whereas the material dependence shows a weaker trend. Large amount of data with varying viewing and illumination angles are needed to allow for inversion of the target characteristics. The experimental results exploited in our study have significantly aided the model development. In the future, this work can be expanded to a real-mode in-orbit scattering model that can be utilised in Earth system and/or astronomical observations and space mission concept designs. Additional measurements with larger variety of samples and their expanded size range are required to extend and solidify the model for the full range of populations representing space particles

Analysis of dust shield and detection system response to hypervelocity impacts for Comet Interceptor Dust Impact Sensor and Counter

Introduction: The dust ejected by cometary nuclei encodes valuable information on the formation and evolution of the early Solar System. Several short-period comets have already been studied in situ[1], but their pristine condition was modified by multiple perihelion passages. Dynamically new comets (DNCs) remain pristine bodies since they never visited the inner Solar System, stationing more than 2000A.U. far away from the Sun in the Oort cloud.Comet Interceptor (CI) is the first F-class space mission selected by the European Space Agency to study a DNC or an interstellar object entering the inner Solar System for the first time[2]. The Dust Impact Sensor and Counter (DISC) is an instrument included in the Dust Field and Plasma (DFP) suite, part of the CI payload, dedicated to characterizing the dust encountered by the spacecraft (S/C) during its flyby in the coma of the target DNC. DISC will measure hypervelocity impacts (HVIs), in the range 10-70km/s, with cometary dust particles of 1-400μm diameter. It aims to characterize the mass distribution of dust particles in the range 10-15-10-8kg, and retrieve information on dust structural properties from impacts duration[3].DISC design: DISC is a 121×115.5×46mm3 aluminum box containing both the detection system and the electronics (Fig.1). The former consists in a 100×100×0.5mm3 aluminum plate with three piezoelectric traducers (PZTs) at its corners. HVIs induce shockwaves in the sensing plate. Far from the impacted area, such waves become acoustic Lamb waves that propagate up to the PZTs, which start to vibrate at their resonant frequency. A couple of electronic boards at the bottom of the unit allows to retrieve the particles momentum and kinetic energy from PZTs vibration signal.Fig.1: DISC sensing element and dust shield design.DISC detection system is derived from the GIADA Impact Sensor measurement subsystem, that was designed to measure impacts of slow particles[4]. During CI flyby, some hypervelocity dust particles might perforate DISC outer sensing diaphragm and represent a serious hazard for the instrumentation. A dedicated mechanical element preliminarily designed as made of four 1cm-thick aerogel blocks and a 1mm-thick aluminum frame was integrated into DISC design to shield the entire S/C from such dangerous impacts.Two key aspects need to be verified to ensure that the instrument is suitable for CI aims:DISC capability to survive the expected coma dust environment; DISC capability to measure the momentum/energy of impacting particles in the aforementioned size and mass ranges. Dust shield assessment: We verified DISC dust shield performance using a two-stage Light-Gas Gun (LGG) (Open University, Milton Keynes) to shoot mm-sized particles of various materials at speeds around 5km/s[5,6]. This facility allowed to test the instrument resistance to momenta in the range 10-2-10-1kg·m/s and to energies of the order of 102J. The dust shield showed good resistance up to energies of about 200J, released by a 3mm nylon bead at 5.5km/s. DISC resistance to higher-energy particles can be improved by increasing the aerogel thickness, without any further modifications to the general design.These experiments proved that DISC is compatible with the foreseen coma dust environment. Integrating a thicker aerogel layer in the design will reduce the risk of failure due to higher-energy particles to low enough values even for the S/C more exposed to the dust flux. The S/C beneath DISC unit is further protected by DISC lower layers.DISC performance: DISC will measure momenta in the range 10-11-10-3kg·m/s[7]. The LGG facility allows to reach high momentum values by shooting heavy particles, but their collision dynamics is very different from what expected for cometary dust. A different strategy to simulate the foreseen impact momentum range is needed.A Van der Graaf (VdG) gun can shoot μm-sized dust particles up to 20km/s, reproducing momenta of 10-9-10-7kg·m/s[8].The tested impact parameters range can be extended by simulating HVIs effects with a high-power pulsed laser beam. Laser intensity, beam dimension, and pulse duration can be regulated to respectively match impact pressure, section, and shock duration of the corresponding particle[9]. Laser intensities of 109-1010W/cm2 can generate surface pressures from kbar to Mbar, typical of cometary dust particles colliding at 3-6km/s. Using our Nd:YAG laser (λ=1064nm), which emits τ=6ns pulses with pulse energy of Epulse=1.2J, we can cover a momentum range of 10-10-10-5kg·m/s. Since laser simulated and VdG real impacts share part of the released momentum range, laser shots can be calibrated and their representativity verified with real collisions.The energy range expected for dust impacts measured during CI flyby is 10-7-102J. Laser simulated impacts cannot reach the higher energy values. However, the energy/pulse duration range is pretty vast and with some attenuators and pulse reducers the central/left part of the parameters space (around mJ energy and ns pulse time) could be reasonably covered.Fig.2. shows the optical setup: a polarizer attenuator splits the beam and allows to regulate its power; a couple of mirrors prevents backwards reflections to get to the laser output aperture; a beam expander enlarges the beam, which enters a vacuum chamber and is focused by a plano-convex lens on the DISC breadboard mounted on a 3-axis translational stage. The vacuum chamber is fundamental to prevent plasma generation in air around the focus.Fig.2: Optical setup for high-power pulsed laser simulated HVIs.By properly tuning the laser parameters, this strategy allows to achieve representative simulations of cometary dust HVIs. In addition to assess DISC performances, simulating the same impact many times provides large statistics to calibrate DISC detection system and momentum/kinetic energy retrieval methodology with great accuracy