32 research outputs found

    The Pitted Impact Deposits on Asteroid 4 Vesta: An In-Depth Analysis

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    This work analyzes geomorphological devolatilization features on the atmosphereless asteroid Vesta. In particular, it predominantly analyzes the features associated with the crater Marcia, as those add up to more than 96% on the whole body and are the only ones occurring within the ejecta of a crater. These features are called Pitted Impact Deposits, or short PIDs, and they have been previously identified on Mars, Vesta and the dwarf planet Ceres. PIDs are characterized by closely spaced pits that occur as locally confined clusters of several kilometers length. The individual pits can overlap and often share boundaries. They lack raised rims as would be typical of an impact crater and are polygonal to circular in shape. Furthermore, they show distinct spectral characteristics like higher reflectance at 750 nm and more intense pyroxene absorptions near 0.9 and 1.9 ”m. It is evident through previous studies that PIDs formed via degassing or devolatilization of parts of the ejecta, yet the detailed mechanism behind remained debated. Additionally to the previously known dominance of pyroxene-rich HED-like material on Vesta (HED: howardite, eucrite, diogenite meteorites), many studies have reported on the existence of OH-bearing material and the so-called ‘dark material’ which has been proposed to originate from influx of carbonaceous chondrite material. The identified OH is likely bound within the crystal structure of phyllosilicates (that are commonly found in carbonaceous chondrites) and is able to leave the crystal structure when heated. All remote observations shown here were obtained by NASA’s Dawn mission. The presented analysis show that the formation of PIDs is controlled by the proportion of an ejecta deposit’s volume to surface area, or depth. Many PIDs are located in small craters or at steep topographic slopes that existed prior to the Marcia impact or to the time of PID formation. This enables the estimation of the pre-existing topography and therefore of the shape and extent of the post-impact ejecta deposit. The accumulation of ejecta at these sites leads to a slower cooling of the ejecta deposit, a larger volume not exposed to the space environment and an extended possibility for volatiles to escape from its host mineral. The depth of the ejecta deposit appears to control the shape and extent of the developing devolatilization vents and therefore, of the individual pits themselves. The proportion of volatiles within the whole ejecta is estimated here to be less than 2 wt% and the proportion of lost volatiles at the PIDs’ sites to ~1 wt%. This shows that particularly elevated volatile contents are not needed to form PIDs. PIDs are always part of a larger impact deposit not featuring a pitted surface. This suggest that the original material of both deposit parts were identical or very similar. The spectral changes of the PIDs with respect to their immediate surroundings are not consistent with variations in grain size, roughness or glass content. One possibility of creating similar spectral characteristics is the removal of darkening agents. At high temperatures, organic material (which are commonly dark) can decompose, as do other components of carbonaceous chondrites. Tochilinite for example is a major constituent in the carbonaceous chondrite Murchison and decomposes already at 400 °C. However, the mere removal of dark components cannot explain all aspects of spectral characteristics shown for PIDs, i.e. the ratio of pyroxene band strength to reflectance at 750 nm with respect to other more typical regions on Vesta. This thesis furthermore presents laboratory experiments in order to explain the PIDs’ spectral characteristics. Both terrestrial and meteoritic materials were used. These were assembled to adequately represent the Vestan regolith. The experiments involving the heating of these analog materials show that hematite formed due to oxidation and therefore, a strong reddening of the visible spectral slope of the samples was observed. This is not observed on Vesta, yet might be explained. First, the ejecta deposit on Vesta is likely very heterogeneous, as has been shown by previous studies. This can lead to a smaller and slower extent of these oxidation processes. Second, the estimated devolatilization duration is in the range of hours to days, possibly inhibiting the onset of hematite formation or the incapability of remote spectrometers to record the small amounts that might have already formed. Third, the processes of space weathering of hematite over geological timescales are not well-known, which could additionally play a role. In combination with existing literature, the laboratory experiments presented here show that an oxidizing environment together with higher temperatures (≄400 °C, well below the minerals’ melting point) can result in similar spectral characteristics, i.e. higher reflectance and pyroxene band strength, as shown for PIDs. The underlying process could involve the migration of Fe2+ to the grain surfaces, where it increases the relative iron abundance that electromagnetic energy (i.e., light) encounters first which in turn intensifies the pyroxene absorption. Many studies have observed similar processes where Fe2+ is converted to Fe3+ and forms hematite (Fe2O3) or other iron (hydr-)oxides. An alternative explanation also includes the migration of Fe2+, yet to its preferred crystallographic M2 site, where it likewise would intensify the pyroxene absorption. Original pyroxene crystals might have been disordered regarding their cation distribution, whereas the temperature increase would enable the cations to migrate to their preferred position. This work shows that oxidation processes can occur on planetary bodies thought to be dry. The surficial contamination with carbonaceous chondrite material enables this process, which might be relevant to future space missions and could influence the search for organic matter.Diese Arbeit analysiert geomorphologische Entgasungserscheinungen auf dem atmosphĂ€renlosen Asteroiden Vesta, insbesondere jene, die mit dem Krater Marcia assoziiert sind. Diese machen ĂŒber 96% der Gesamtanzahl aus und sind die einzigen, die in der Ejekta eines Kraters auftreten. Diese Pitted Impact Deposits (PIDs, zu deutsch: Einschlagsablagerungen, die eng gruppierte Senken/Mulden aufweisen) wurden zuvor bereits auf Vesta, sowie schon auf dem Mars und auf dem Zwergplaneten Ceres beobachtet. Die eng gruppierten Senken treten als Ansammlung von mehreren Kilometern LĂ€nge auf, können ĂŒberlappen und teilen sich hĂ€ufig ihre RĂ€nder. Lokal sind sie stark begrenzt zu ihrem direkten Umfeld, welches ebenfalls aus Einschlagsablagerungen besteht. Sie zeigen zudem keine erhöhten RĂ€nder, was fĂŒr Einschlagskrater typisch wĂ€re. Diese Senken sind polygonal bis rund geformt und zeigen zudem spektrale Besonderheiten, wie höhere Reflektanz bei 750 nm und intensivere Pyroxen-Absorptionsbanden bei ~0.9 und 1.9 ”m, auf. WĂ€hrend eindeutig ist, dass diese Erscheinungsformen durch Entgasung bzw. Devolatilisierung der Ejekta entstehen, blieb die genaue Entstehungsursache auf Vesta bisher jedoch ungeklĂ€rt. Viele Studien haben zusĂ€tzlich zum bereits bekannten und vorherrschenden, pyroxenreichen HED-Ă€hnlichen Material (von den pyroxenreichen HED-Meteoriten: Howardite, Eukrite, Diogenite) OH-haltiges Material und ‘dunkles Material’, wahrscheinlich von kohligen Chondriten stammend, im Regolith von Vesta nachgewiesen bzw. eindeutige Hinweise darauf gefunden. Dieses OH liegt in den Kristallstrukturen von Phyllosilikaten vor und kann unter Temperatureinwirkung aus der Kristallstruktur gelöst werden und entgasen bzw. devolatilisieren. Alle hier dargestellten Beobachtungen des Asteroiden Vesta stĂŒtzen sich auf Daten, die von der NASA-Raumsonde Dawn aufgenommen wurden. Die hier vorgestellten Analysen zeigen, dass die Entgasung mit Senkenbildung vornehmlich durch das VerhĂ€ltnis von Volumen zur OberflĂ€che bzw. Tiefe der Ablagerung kontrolliert wird, da viele PIDs in bereits vor dem Impakt existierenden Kratern und an steilen topografischen Erhöhungen auftreten. Das Vorkommen an solch topographisch eindeutigen Morphologien ermöglicht die AbschĂ€tzung der Topographie vor dem Marcia-bildenden Impakt sowie die AbschĂ€tzung der AusprĂ€gung und Form der Einschlagsablagerungen nach Impakt. Die Akkumulation von Ejekta an diesen topographisch markanten Stellen fĂŒhrt zu einer verlangsamten AbkĂŒhlung des Ejektamaterials, einem grĂ¶ĂŸeren erhitzten Volumen welches nicht an der OberflĂ€che der Weltraumumgebung ausgesetzt wird und dabei zu einer verlĂ€ngerten Möglichkeit, Volatile aus Mineralstrukturen zu lösen. Die Tiefe der Ablagerung bedingt die AusprĂ€gung der entstehenden Entgasungsschlote und damit der Senken. Der Anteil an Volatilen in der Gesamtejekta wird mit 2% geschĂ€tzt und der Anteil bei Ausgasung der PIDs mit 1%. Dies zeigt, dass besonders hohe Volatilanteile nicht benötigt werden, um diese Erscheingsformen hervorzurufen. PIDs sind immer Teil einer grĂ¶ĂŸer ausgeprĂ€gten Einschlagsablagerung, was ein identisches Ausgangsmaterial suggeriert. Die spektralen VerĂ€nderungen von PIDs im Vergleich zu ihrer direkten Umgebung sind nicht konsistent mit VerĂ€nderungen von KorngrĂ¶ĂŸen, Rauigkeit oder dem Vorhandensein von Glaskomponenten im Material. Eine Möglichkeit, die gezeigten spektralen Eigenschaften zu erzeugen, ist das Entfernen von ‘dunklem Material’. Bei erhöhten Temperaturen können organische Strukturen (die meist dunkel sind) sowie andere Komponenten von kohligen Chondriten zerfallen. Tochilinit zum Beispiel, ein Hauptbestandteil der Matrix im kohligen Chondrit Murchison, zerfĂ€llt bereits bei 400 °C. Jedoch kann die bloße Entfernung von ‘dunklem Material’ nicht alle Aspekte der spektralen Eigenschaften der PIDs erklĂ€ren, wie z.B. das höhere VerhĂ€ltnis der StĂ€rke der Pyroxenabsorption im Vergleich zur Reflektanz bei 750 nm im Vergleich zu anderen typischen Regionen auf Vesta. Diese Arbeit prĂ€sentiert darĂŒber hinaus Laborexperimente, die die spektralen Eigenschaften der PIDs erklĂ€ren sollten. Diese wurden mit terrestrischem und meteoritischem Material, welches sich zur Simulation des Regoliths auf Vesta sehr gut eignet, durchgefĂŒhrt. Die Temperaturexperimente zeigen die Entstehung von HĂ€matit durch Oxidation und damit einhergehend eine sehr starke Steigung der Reflektanz im visuellen WellenlĂ€ngenbereich. Dies wird nicht auf Vesta beobachtet, was jedoch auch andere GrĂŒnde haben kann. Zum einen ist das Material auf Vesta sehr inhomogen gemischt, was zu verlangsamten Reaktionen fĂŒhren kann. Außerdem liegt die geschĂ€tzte Ausgasungszeit der PIDs auf Vesta bei Stunden oder wenigen Tagen, was unter UmstĂ€nden dazu fĂŒhrt, dass die Bildung von HĂ€matit noch nicht begonnen hat oder nur in einem so geringen Maß, welches nicht per Spektroskopie erkannt werden kann. Des Weiteren ist wenig ĂŒber die Verwitterung von HĂ€matit, welches der Weltraumumgebung ĂŒber geologische ZeitrĂ€ume ausgesetzt wurde, bekannt, was ebenso eine Rolle spielen könnte. Vor allem jedoch zeigen die Laborexperimente, in Verbindung mit bereits existierender Literatur zu dem Thema, dass eine oxidierende Umgebung in Verbindung mit erhöhten Temperaturen (≄400 °C, weit unter dem Schmelzpunkt der Minerale) genau jene Erscheinung der PIDs - erhöhte Reflektanzen und intensivere Pyroxen-Absorptionsbanden - hervorrufen kann. Dabei könnten Fe2+-Kationen aus ihrer Kristallposition mobilisiert werden und zu den PartikelrĂ€ndern migrieren. In vielen Studien, auch mit extraterrestrischem Material, wurde dies bereits beobachtet; mit dem Resultat, dass Fe2+ zu Fe3+ oxidiert und nach Verlassen der Pyroxenstruktur in Verbindung mit den verfĂŒgbaren Volatilen HĂ€matit (Fe2O3) oder andere Eisen(hydr-)oxide bildet. Eine mögliche Anreicherung von Fe2+-Kationen wĂ€hrend dieses Prozesses an den PartikelrĂ€ndern fĂŒhrt dazu, dass eletromagnetische Energie (Licht) zunĂ€chst auf mehr Eisen-Kationen im Kristallgitter trifft, was eine Intensivierung der Absorptionsbanden nach sich zieht. Alternativ kann es sein, dass sich im ursprĂŒnglich ungeordneten Kristall durch die Erhöhung der Temperatur die Kationen neu ordnen können und Fe2+ in seine bevorzugte kristallographische M2-Position migriert. Auch dies wĂŒrde eine Intensivierung der Pyroxen-Absorptionsbanden hervorrufen. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass Oxidationsprozesse auch auf Körpern geschehen können, die eigentlich als "trocken" gelten. Die oberflĂ€chliche Kontamination mit kohligen Chondriten ermöglicht dabei diesen Prozess, was fĂŒr zukĂŒnftige Missionen und die Suche nach organischem Material eine Rolle spielen könnte

    The Spectral Properties of Pitted Impact Deposits on Vesta as Seen by the Dawn VIR Instrument

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    Pitted impact deposits (PIDs) on Vesta have been shown to exhibit distinct spectral characteristics with respect to their surrounding host deposits and other typical Vestan areas regarding the first major pyroxene absorption near 0.9 ÎŒm. The PIDs, especially those in the ejecta blanket of the large crater Marcia, show higher reflectance and pyroxene band strength with respect to their impact deposit surroundings. This study complements the spectral characterization of the PIDs on Vesta with Visible and Infrared Spectrometer observations obtained by NASA's Dawn mission. In particular, we focus on the second major pyroxene absorption near 1.9 ÎŒm. We analyze nine PIDs in the ejecta blanket of the crater Marcia, as well as PIDs within the crater-fill deposits of the craters Marcia, Cornelia, and Licinia. We find that the second pyroxene absorption behaves in similar ways as the first major pyroxene absorption. The PIDs in Marcia's ejecta blanket show higher reflectance and pyroxene band strength with respect to their immediate impact deposit surroundings. The PIDs present in the crater-fill deposits of Marcia, Cornelia, and Licinia, however, do not show such spectral characteristics. This is also consistent with previous observations of the first pyroxene absorption band. Based on the experimental results of other studies, we speculate that the observed spectral distinctness arises from an oxidation process in the interior of impact deposits, where Fe cations migrate within their host pyroxene grains. Thus, the surfaces of (melt-bearing) impact deposits might be different from their interiors, apart from space-weathering effects

    Spectral and Petrographic Properties of Inclusions in Carbonaceous Chondrites and Comparison with In Situ Images from Asteroid Ryugu

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    We imaged a set of carbonaceous chondrites from the CM2, CO3, CV3, and CK4 groups using the qualification model of MasCam, the camera on board the asteroid lander MASCOT, which touched down on asteroid Ryugu in 2018 October. A CI1 meteorite was also imaged but excluded from the analysis due to prominent terrestrial weathering. Following the methods used to image the rock on Ryugu, we placed a total of 14 meteorites approximately 20 cm in front of the camera to achieve a spatial resolution of about 0.2 mm per pixel and illuminated the samples with onboard light-emitting diodes of four different colors in the visible wavelength range. We mapped bright and dark inclusions within the meteorites and derived the inclusion brightness relative to the matrix in the red light, the relative spectral slope of each inclusion, the inclusion size frequency distribution and the matrix volume abundance. We find that the meteorite groups overlap within these parameters, but individual samples, as well as individual inclusions, can have deviating values. Terrestrial weathering appears to have no systematic influence on these parameters. Relating our analysis to the inclusions found in the rock on Ryugu, we find that the spectral parameters of Ryugu's inclusions fit well in the parameter space of the carbonaceous chondrites. Compared with the most common types of carbonaceous chondrites, Ryugu's rock has larger inclusions (mean diameter: 0.63 ± 0.91 mm) and a higher upper limit to the matrix abundance (92.4 vol%)

    A global Staphylococcus aureus proteome resource applied to the in vivo characterization of host-pathogen interactions.

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    Data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry promises higher performance in terms of quantification and reproducibility compared to data-dependent acquisition mass spectrometry methods. To enable high-accuracy quantification of Staphylococcus aureus proteins, we have developed a global ion library for data-independent acquisition approaches employing high-resolution time of flight or Orbitrap instruments for this human pathogen. We applied this ion library resource to investigate the time-resolved adaptation of S. aureus to the intracellular niche in human bronchial epithelial cells and in a murine pneumonia model. In epithelial cells, abundance changes for more than 400 S. aureus proteins were quantified, revealing, e.g., the precise temporal regulation of the SigB-dependent stress response and differential regulation of translation, fermentation, and amino acid biosynthesis. Using an in vivo murine pneumonia model, our data-independent acquisition quantification analysis revealed for the first time the in vivo proteome adaptation of S. aureus. From approximately 2.15 × 1

    Intranasal Vaccination With Lipoproteins Confers Protection Against Pneumococcal Colonisation

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    Streptococcus pneumoniae is endowed with a variety of surface-exposed proteins representing putative vaccine candidates. Lipoproteins are covalently anchored to the cell membrane and highly conserved among pneumococcal serotypes. Here, we evaluated these lipoproteins for their immunogenicity and protective potential against pneumococcal colonisation. A multiplex-based immunoproteomics approach revealed the immunogenicity of selected lipoproteins. High antibody titres were measured in sera from mice immunised with the lipoproteins MetQ, PnrA, PsaA, and DacB. An analysis of convalescent patient sera confirmed the immunogenicity of these lipoproteins. Examining the surface localisation and accessibility of the lipoproteins using flow cytometry indicated that PnrA and DacB were highly abundant on the surface of the bacteria. Mice were immunised intranasally with PnrA, DacB, and MetQ using cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) as an adjuvant, followed by an intranasal challenge with S. pneumoniae D39. PnrA protected the mice from pneumococcal colonisation. For the immunisation with DacB and MetQ, a trend in reducing the bacterial load could be observed, although this effect was not statistically significant. The reduction in bacterial colonisation was correlated with the increased production of antigen-specific IL-17A in the nasal cavity. Immunisation induced high systemic IgG levels with a predominance for the IgG1 isotype, except for DacB, where IgG levels were substantially lower compared to MetQ and PnrA. Our results indicate that lipoproteins are interesting targets for future vaccine strategies as they are highly conserved, abundant, and immunogenic

    Toxin exposure and HLA alleles determine serum antibody binding to toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1) of Staphylococcus aureus

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    Life-threatening toxic shock syndrome is often caused by the superantigen toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) produced by Staphylococcus aureus. A well-known risk factor is the lack of neutralizing antibodies. To identify determinants of the anti-TSST-1 antibody response, we examined 976 participants of the German population-based epidemiological Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP-TREND-0). We measured anti-TSST-1 antibody levels, analyzed the colonization with TSST-1-encoding S. aureus strains, and performed a genome-wide association analysis of genetic risk factors. TSST-1-specific serum IgG levels varied over a range of 4.2 logs and were elevated by a factor of 12.3 upon nasal colonization with TSST-1-encoding S. aureus. Moreover, the anti-TSST-1 antibody levels were strongly associated with HLA class II gene loci. HLA-DRB1*03:01 and HLA-DQB1*02:01 were positively, and HLA-DRB1*01:01 as well as HLA-DQB1*05:01 negatively associated with the anti-TSST-1 antibody levels. Thus, both toxin exposure and HLA alleles affect the human antibody response to TSST-1

    Dienstleistungsstrukturen und Versorgungsprozesse im Quartier

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    Handbuch 2 der Handbuchreihe "Ältere als (Ko-)Produzenten von Quartiersnetzwerken – Impulse aus dem Projekt QuartiersNETZ
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