The effects of multiple layers feed-forward neural network transfer function in digital based Ethiopian soil classification and moisture prediction

In the area of machine learning performance analysis is the major task in order to get a better performance both in training and testing model. In addition, performance analysis of machine learning techniques helps to identify how the machine is performing on the given input and also to find any improvements needed to make on the learning model. Feed-forward neural network (FFNN) has different area of applications, but the epoch convergences of the network differs from the usage of transfer function. In this study, to build the model for classification and moisture prediction of soil, rectified linear units (ReLU), Sigmoid, hyperbolic tangent (Tanh) and Gaussian transfer function of feed-forward neural network had been analyzed to identify an appropriate transfer function. Color, texture, shape and brisk local feature descriptor are used as a feature vector of FFNN in the input layer and 4 hidden layers were considered in this study. In each hidden layer 26 neurons are used. From the experiment, Gaussian transfer function outperforms than ReLU, sigmoid and tanh transfer function. But the convergence rate of Gaussian transfer function took more epoch than ReLU, Sigmoid and tanh

SEXUAL BEHAVIOURS AND SOME SOCIAL FEATURES OF FEMALE SEX WORKERS IN THE CITY OF ADDIS ABABA

SUMMARY: In July 1989 during a survey for HIV infection in Addis Ababa, 2663 randomly selected females working at bars, tej (local wine) houses, tella (local beer) houses, and private redlight houses, who practiced multi-partner sexual contacts (MPSC) were interviewed. The study showed that 7.1% of the adult female population of the capital city regularly practiced multipartner sexual contacts. More than 85% of them were not married as a result of past divorces. 52.2% of the group had practiced MPSC for less than 2 years and 16.3% for 2-4 years. 98.1% of females practiced peno-vaginal sex only, 1.7%, in addition occasionally practiced peno-rectal, and 0.2% peno-oral sex. Females practicing MPSC in red-light houses had more sexual partners and they were at a higher risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases. 17.7% of all groups combined reported experiencing one or more episodes of Sill; gonorrhea being the leading cause

PREGNANCY/STD PROTECTIVE MEANS USED BY HIV FEMALE SEX WORKERS IN ETHIOPIA

SUMMARY: In 1988 and 1989, 2663 women in Addis Ababa and 6564 women in 23 other towns of the country practicing multi-partner sexual contacts (MPSC) were interviewed during sero-prevalence surveys for HIV infection. Outside the capital city 42.2% (n=2771) of the women reported using oral contraceptives always or often and only 1.8% of all women in the study always or often used condoms. The results were similar in the capital city. The study indicated that condoms and spermicides known to protect from sexually transmitted disease (STD) and HIV infection were very rarely used by the females practicing MPSC in urban areas of Ethiopia. Since the use of condoms by the study groups was low in general, no significant difference in the frequencies of STD was found between females using them often and non-users. Immediate intensive actions should be directed at the provision of condoms and intensified education aimed at behavior change in order to decrease transmission of HIV

Integrated morbidity mapping of lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis cases in 20 co-endemic districts of Ethiopia

Background: Lymphatic filariasis (LF) and podoconiosis are neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) that pose a significant physical, social and economic burden to endemic communities. Patients affected by the clinical conditions of LF (lymphoedema and hydrocoele) and podoconiosis (lymphoedema) need access to morbidity management and disability prevention (MMDP) services. Clear estimates of the number and location of these patients are essential to the efficient and equitable implementation of MMDP services for both diseases. Methodology/Principle findings: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Ethiopia using the Health Extension Worker (HEW) network to identify all cases of lymphoedema and hydrocoele in 20 woredas (districts) co-endemic for LF and podoconiosis. A total of 612 trained HEWs and 40 supervisors from 20 districts identified 26,123 cases of clinical morbidity. Of these, 24,908 (95.3%) reported cases had leg lymphoedema only, 751 (2.9%) had hydrocoele, 387 (1.5%) had both leg lymphoedema and hydrocoele, and 77 (0.3%) cases had breast lymphoedema. Of those reporting leg lymphoedema, 89.3% reported bilateral lymphoedema. Older age groups were more likely to have a severe stage of disease, have bilateral lymphoedema and to have experienced an acute attack in the last six months. Conclusions/Significance: This study represents the first community-wide, integrated clinical case mapping of both LF and podoconiosis in Ethiopia. It highlights the high number of cases, particularly of leg lymphoedema that could be attributed to either of these diseases. This key clinical information will assist and guide the allocation of resources to where they are needed most

The national programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis from Ethiopia

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is one of the most debilitating and disfiguring diseases common in Ethiopia and is caused by Wuchereria bancrofti. Mapping for LF has shown that 70 woredas (districts) are endemic and 5.9 million people are estimated to be at risk. The national government’s LF elimination programme commenced in 2009 in 5 districts integrated with the onchocerciasis programme. The programme developed gradually and has shown significant progress over the past 6 years, reaching 100% geographical coverage for mass drug administration (MDA) by 2016. To comply with the global LF elimination goals an integrated morbidity management and disability prevention (MMDP) guideline and a burden assessment programme has also been developed; MMDP protocols and a hydrocoele surgical handbook produced for country-wide use. In Ethiopia, almost all LF endemic districts are co-endemic with malaria and vector control aspects of the activities are conducted in the context of malaria programme as the vectors for both diseases are mosquitoes. In order to monitor the elimination, 11 sentinel and spot-check sites have been established and baseline information has been collected. Although significant achievements have been achieved in the scale up of the LF elimination programme, there is still a need to strengthen operational research to generate programme-relevant evidence, to increase access to morbidity management services, and to improve monitoring and evaluation of the LF programme. However, the current status of implementation of the LF national programme indicates that Ethiopia is poised to achieve the 2020 goal of elimination of LF. Nevertheless, to achieve this goal, high and sustained treatment coverage and strong monitoring and evaluation of the programme are essential

Forage preference of camel calves (Camelus dromedarius) in easten Ethiopia

A study on forage preference of Camel calves from 6 to 12 months of age was conducted in eastern Ethiopia. Data were collected at an interval of 50 minutes for each calf for 15 consecutive days in dry and wet season. Based on the observation, calves commonly selected 13 plant species in the dry season and 15 plant species in the wet season. The top 10 plant species preferred by calves accounted for about 99% and 94% of the total browsed forage species during the dry and wet season, respectively. Opuntia ficus-indicus was the most frequently browsed forage species both in the wet (37%) and dry (41%) seasons. The second frequently browsed species in dry season were Lantana camara (15.09%) and Becium species (15.09%) and in wet season Becium species (13.08%). The crud protein (CP) content of mixed plant species browsed by the calves in the dry and wet season was 13.8 and 27.7 %, respectively. On average calves spent 79.51 + 14.83% of their time on browsing during the dry and wet season in the present study. Relatively more time spent on browsing in wet season (82.11 + 9.74%) compared to dry season (76.91 + 19.92%). From the study it was concluded that number of commonly preferred forage species of calves were less than number reported for mature Camels. Calves selected for feed with lower CP content in dry season compared to wet season. Moreover, time spent browsing was relatively lower in dry season compared to wet season. It is therefore, recommended that further study will be suggested to know how much the requirement of the calves can be satisfied from the liquid milk suckled from the dams and solid feed available in the area in order to supplement the calves strategically.The National Camel Research Project and University of Haramaya.http://www.thejaps.org.pk/am201

Integrated morbidity management for lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis, Ethiopia

Problem Lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis are the major causes of tropical lymphoedema in Ethiopia. The diseases require the similar provision of care, but in 2012 the Ethiopian health system did not integrate the morbidity management. Approach To establish health-care services for integrated lymphoedema morbidity management, the health ministry and partners used existing governmental structures. Integrated disease mapping was done in 659 out of the 817 districts, to identify endemic districts. To inform resource allocation, trained health extension workers did integrated disease burden assessments in 56 districts with a high clinical burden. To ensure standard provision of care, the health ministry developed an integrated lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis morbidity management guideline, containing a treatment algorithm and a defined package of care. Experienced professionals on lymphoedema management trained government-employed health workers on integrated morbidity management. To monitor the integration, an indicator on the number of lymphoedema-treated patients was included in the national health management information system. Local setting In 2014, only 24% (87) of the 363 health facilities surveyed provided lymphatic filariasis services, while 12% (44) provided podoconiosis services. Relevant changes To date, 542 health workers from 53 health centres in 24 districts have been trained on integrated morbidity management. Between July 2013 and June 2016, the national health management information system has recorded 46 487 treated patients from 189 districts. Lessons learnt In Ethiopia, an integrated approach for lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis morbidity management was feasible. The processes used could be applicable in other settings where these diseases are co-endemic

Prevalence of Trachoma in Pre-validation Surveillance Surveys in 11 Evaluation Units (Covering 12 Districts) in Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia: Results from 2018−2020

PURPOSE: Interventions to reduce the prevalence of trachoma and transmission of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis have been implemented in Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Following an impact survey in which the trachomatous inflammation—follicular (TF) prevalence in 1–9-year-olds is <5%, a surveillance survey is recommended 2 years later, without additional antibiotic treatment. We report results of surveillance surveys in 11 evaluation units (EUs) covering 12 districts in Oromia Region, to plan whether future interventions are needed. METHOD: We use a two-stage cluster-sampling cross-sectional survey design. In each EU, 26 clusters (villages) were systematically selected with probability proportional to size; from each cluster, 30 households were selected using compact segment sampling. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) access was assessed in all selected households. All residents of selected households aged ≥1 year were examined for TF and trachomatous trichiasis (TT) by certified graders. RESULT: Of 31,991 individuals enumerated, 29,230 (91% of) individuals were examined. Eight EUs had an age-adjusted TF prevalence in 1−9-year-olds of ≥5% and seven had a TT prevalence unknown to the health system among adults aged ≥15 years of ≥0.2%. About one-third of visited households had access to an improved water source for drinking, and 5% had access to an improved latrine. CONCLUSION: Despite TF reductions to <5% at impact survey, prevalence recrudesced to ≥5% in all but three of the 11 EUs. Operational research is needed to understand transmission dynamics and epidemiology, in order to optimise elimination strategies in high-transmission settings like these

Prevalence of Trachoma After Three Rounds of Antibiotic Mass Drug Administration in 13 Woredas of Gambella Region, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND: Following baseline surveys in 2013 and 2014, trachoma elimination interventions, including three rounds of azithromycin mass drug administration (MDA), were implemented in 13 woredas (administrative districts) of Gambella Regional State, Ethiopia. We conducted impact surveys to determine if elimination thresholds have been met or if additional interventions are required. METHODS: Cross-sectional population-based surveys were conducted in 13 woredas of Gambella Regional State, combined into five evaluation units (EUs), 6─12 months after their last MDA round. A two-stage systematic (first stage) and random (second stage) sampling technique was used. WHO-recommended protocols were implemented with the support of Tropical Data. Household water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) access was assessed. RESULTS: The age-adjusted prevalence of trachomatous inflammation - follicular (TF) in 1-9-year-olds in the five EUs ranged from 0.3-19.2%, representing a general decline in TF prevalence compared to baseline estimates. The age- and gender-adjusted prevalence of trachomatous trichiasis (TT) unknown to the health system in those aged ≥ 15 years ranged from 0.47-3.08%. Of households surveyed, 44% had access to an improved drinking water source within a 30-minute return journey of the house, but only 3% had access to an improved latrine. CONCLUSION: In two EUs, no further MDA should be delivered, and a surveillance survey should be conducted after two years without MDA. In one EU, one further round of MDA should be conducted followed by another impact survey. In two EUs, three further MDA rounds are required. Surgery, facial cleanliness and environmental improvement interventions are needed throughout the region

Prevalence of Trachoma after Implementation of Trachoma Elimination Interventions in Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia: Results of Impact Surveys in 131 Evaluation Units Covering 139 Districts

PURPOSE: To determine the prevalence of trachomatous inflammation—follicular (TF), trachomatous trichiasis (TT), water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) access in 131 evaluation units (EUs) after implementation of trachoma elimination interventions in Oromia Region, Ethiopia. METHODOLOGY: A population-based cross-sectional survey was conducted in each EU using the World Health Organization-recommended two-stage cluster-sampling methodology. Twenty-six clusters, each with a mean of 30 households were enumerated in each EU. All residents aged ≥1 year in selected households were examined for TF and TT. Information on WASH access in surveyed households was also collected through questioning the household head and direct observation. RESULTS: A total of 419,858 individuals were enumerated in 131 EUs, of whom 396,134 (94%) were examined, 54% being female. Age-adjusted EU-level prevalence of TF in children aged 1–9 years ranged from 0.15% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.0–0.4) to 37.5% (95% CI: 31.1–43.7). The TF prevalence was <5% in 73/131 (56%) EUs. The EU-level age- and gender-adjusted prevalence of TT unknown to the health system among people aged ≥15 years ranged from 0.001% (95% CI: 0.00–0.02) to 2.2% (95% CI: 1.1–3.1) with 37/131 (28%) EUs having a prevalence <0.2%. Only 48% of all households surveyed had access to improved water sources for drinking. Approximately 96% of households did not have an improved latrine. CONCLUSION: Oromia is on the path towards elimination of trachoma as a public health problem