Accounting for Neighborhood Influence in Estimating Factors Determining the Adoption of Improved Agricultural Technologies

Researchers have traditionally applied censored regression models to estimate factors influencing farmers' decisions to adopt improved technologies for the design of appropriate intervention strategies. The standard Tobit model, commonly used, assumes spatial homogeneity implicitly but the potential for the presence of spatial heterogeneity (spatial autocorrelation or dependence) is high due to neighborhood influence among farmers. Ignoring spatial autocorrelation (if it exists) would result in biased estimates and all inferences based on the model will be incorrect. On the other hand, if spatial dependence is ignored the regression estimates would be inefficient and inferences based on t and F statistics misleading. To account for neighborhood influence, this study applied a spatial Tobit model to assess the factors determining the adoption of improved maize varieties in southern Africa using data collected from 300 randomly selected farm households in the Manica, Sussundenga and Chokwe districts of Mozambique during the 2003/04 crop season. Model diagnosis confirmed the spatial Tobit model as a better fit than the standard Tobit model. The estimated results suggest that farm size, access to credit, yield and cost of seed significantly influence maize variety adoption at less than 1% error probability while age of household head and distance to market influence adoption decisions at 5% error probability. The marginal effect analysis showed that convincing farmers that a given improved maize variety would give a unit more yield than the local one would increase adoption rate by 18% and intensity of use by 10%. Given that improved maize seeds are relatively more expensive than local ones, making credit accessible to farmers would increase adoption and intensity of use of improved maize varieties by 24% (15% being the probability of adoption and 8% the intensity of 2 use of the varieties). On the other hand, increasing seed price by a unit over the local variety would decrease the adoption rate by 12% and area under the improved variety by 6%. Targeting younger farmers with extension messages or making markets accessible to farmers would marginally increase the adoption and use intensity of improved maize varieties by only 0.4%. These results suggest that increasing field demonstrations to show farmers the yield advantage of improved varieties over local ones in Mozambique are essential in improving the uptake of improved varieties, which may be enhanced by making credit available to farmers to address the high improved seed costs. Alternatively, assuring farmers of competitive output markets through marketing innovations would enhance improved maize variety adoptions decisions. It may be concluded that the significance of the paper is its demonstration of the need to include spatial dependency in technology adoption models where neighborhood influences are suspected. Such an approach would give more credence to the results and limit the errors in suggesting areas to emphasize in individual or group targeting. The results thus have implications beyond the study area. Furthermore, the paper contributes to the scanty literature on the application of spatial econometrics in agricultural technology adoption modeling.Farm Management,

A PROBIT ANALYSIS OF WOMEN FARMERS’ ACCESS TO FARM LAND AND CREDIT IN THE NORTHERN PROVINCE

Northern Province is predominantly a rural region where agriculture is the dominant sector and plays an important role in the provincial economy. Women are the majority of the poor living in these rural areas and depend heavily on farming. But their agricultural productivity is below potential as they don’t have access to productive assets such as land and credit. This study based on a farm survey undertaken in the seven districts in the former Lebowa homeland in the Northern Province, attempts to identify factors which determine women farmers’s access to more farming land and credit facilities. The results show that most of the women are not satisfied with the size of the land which they own and they have never used farming credit. The probit analysis results show that productivity of the staple crop (maize), more off-farm income and access to credit are the strong determinants of the desire to increase, the size of the farming land. Access to credit is influenced by the first two variables above and farmers membership to agricultural development projects. Better access to and security for farm land, targeted credit and agricultural support services are crucial in improving the quality of women farmers in the province.Agricultural Finance, Land Economics/Use,

MAIZE BREEDING RESEARCH IN EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA: CURRENT STATUS AND IMPACTS OF PAST INVESTMENTS MADE BY THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTORS, 1966-97

This report documents the impacts of international maize breeding research in eastern and southern Africa. It draws on information from a comprehensive 1998/99 survey of public and private maize breeding and seed production organizations active in the region. In many countries of eastern and southern Africa, policy reforms introduced in the 1980s and 1990s encouraged private sector participation in the maize seed industry. The private sector now supplies most of the maize seed in the region, spends more on research, and generates a larger number of maize releases than the public sector. Hybrids dominate varietal releases and seed sales, a trend that may negatively affect subsistence-oriented farmers who lack resources to buy fresh seed every season. Although farmers' adoption of improved maize varies throughout the region, it has increased steadily. Survey data show that CIMMYT's maize breeding program has had significant impacts in eastern and southern Africa, especially in recent years. Of the maize varieties released in the region since 1990, 31% (55% if South Africa is excluded) were developed using CIMMYT breeding materials. In 1996, more than 1.6 million hectares in eastern and southern Africa were planted to varieties developed using CIMMYT germplasm. The varietal release data and adoption data indicate growing demand for CIMMYT breeding materials from both public and private breeding programs, as well as growing acceptance by farmers of varieties developed using those materials.Agribusiness,

Breaking the "Fertilizer Poverty" and Food Insecurity Traps in Smallholder Maize Based Farming System in Southern Africa: Experiences and Lessons from Soil Fertility Network/Economics and Policy Working Group (EPWG)

Smallholder farmers in southern Africa face acute food insecurity because the productive capacity of their soils has declined. These resource-poor farmers increasingly cannot afford mineral fertilizers Farmers mentioned the lack of fertilizers for their depleted soils as the most important constraint- "Empty Soils, stomachs and pockets." In response to this challenge, Soil Fert Net researchers in southern Africa have developed and promoted a range of "best-bet" soil fertility management technological (SFMT) options for farmers. This paper presents a review of financial, adoption, institutional and policy analysis undertaken by EPWG members on the use of SFMT by smallholders. Financial and risk analysis tools, selected econometric models and policy analysis matrix were employed to measure profitability, incidence and intensity of adoption and to understand the effects of policy instruments necessary to promote SFMTs. Financial analysis of "best bets" indicates that (even with current unfavorable input and output prices) there are positive payoffs to investing in SFMTs. Adoption studies in Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique revealed that farmers need to make a significant initial investment in terms of labor, land and capital before they start to obtain benefits. SFMTs are also management and information intensive and farmers' limited skills and knowledge are critical factors influencing adoption. Profitability and subsequent adoption decisions are sensitive to changes in maize grain price, crop yield and the cost of borrowing capital. The study recommend institutional and policy support and advocacy for better access to credit, input availability, market linkages to scale up the diffusion and promotion of SFMTs.Policy briefs, Policy analysis matrix, markets, cropping systems, legumes, N fertilizer, Crop Production/Industries, Food Security and Poverty,

A Farm Level Evaluation Of The Impact Of IPM On Pesticide Use: A Comparative Analysis Of IPM And Non-IPM Trained Farmers In Zimbabwe’s Smallholder Sector

An AEE Working Paper on the application of IPM in rural agricultural development in Zimbabwe.Smallholder farmers constitute the majority of farmers in Zimbabwe. Their production systems are predominately subsistence based, in which maize accounts for over 65% of the cultivated area. Horticultural production has steadily grown to become an important additional source of income for smallholder farmers who are being encouraged to diversify to the production of high value crops. Tomatoes are an important crop grown by smallholder horticulture farmers. Tomato production is vulnerable to pests and disease outbreaks. Currently, pest management in tomato production is characterized by a heavy dependence on chemical pesticides. Chemical pesticides are viewed as a quick and easy solution to pest problems. In Zimbabwe, and in many developing countries, chemical pesticides receive a substantial amount of government support as they are seen as the main means of reducing crop losses. However, there is mounting evidence of the negative effects of chemical pesticides on human health and the environment. Toxic substances can accumulate in the ecosystem and have a detrimental effect on non-target organisms. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) promotes the use of all known\ (biological and cultural) environmentally benign pest control measures. Farmers are encouraged to integrate the various biological and cultural methods such that chemicals are used minimally and very judiciously. In Zimbabwe, very few farmers have had exposure to IPM because it has not been widely promoted. Given an increase in cost of agricultural inputs (including chemical pesticides) in Zimbabwe, there could be scope for wider adoption of IPM. This study presents a preliminary assessment of the impact of IPM technology on farmers’ pest control practices, perceptions of chemical pesticides, and knowledge of non-chemical pest control alternatives. The study involved a comparative analysis of 84 non-IPM trained smallholder tomato growers and 36 IPM trained smallholder tomato growers. The farmers were surveyed in 1999 in Chinamora communal area, a horticulture farming area 50 km to the North -east of Harare. The study findings indicate some promising implications for wider adoption of IPM by smallholder farmers. IPM training had a positive influence on farmers’ knowledge level of pests and health hazards of chemical pesticides and a negative influence on the amounts of chemical pesticides used. IPM trained farmers spent 57.5 % less on chemical pesticides than farmers not trained in IPM Nearly all (99%) IPM trained farmers knew of the five major pests of tomatoes compared to 76% of the non-IPM trained farmers. More IPM trained farmers knew and used\alternatives to chemical pesticides to control pests. IPM trained farmers anticipated yield losses of\60% due to pest damage compared to 95% perceived by non-IPM trained farmers. IPM trained farriers were more aware of both the acute and the chronic illnesses associated with exposure to chemical pesticides than non- IPM trained farmers: 80% of IPM trained farmers compared to 5% of the non-IPM trained farmers were aware. The study concludes that policy makers should encourage the use of a pest management strategy that is information based such as IPM. This will improve the smallholders’ effective use of chemical pesticides increasing their profitability and will raise the farmers’ awareness of the health hazards of chemical pesticides

A Unified Approach to the Estimation of Demand for Improved Seed in Developing Agriculture

This paper proposes a new approach for estimating the demand for seed within a developing country context where only improved seeds are sold but adoption rates for improved varieties low. A farmer views an improved seed firstly as a derived input embodying production attributes and secondly, as a technology embodying consumption characteristics. He therefore jointly decides on its adoption and the quantity of seed required to plant a predetermined area. Drawing on the theory of demand for consumption goods characteristics and production input attributes, this paper specified and estimated non-separable household demand and consumption models using data collected from 300 farm households in Zambia during the 2003/04 crop season. The estimated results suggest that adoption rate, distance to market, level of household grain self-sufficiency, seed hand-outs and household wealth are significant in determining farmers' seed purchase decisions. Appropriate intervention strategies for increased over-all improved seed demand are recommended. It is concluded that apart from contributing to the literature on modelling farm level seed demand, the model provides a holistic approach for the joint estimation of determinants of improved variety adoption and seed demand relevant for better targeting to increase the impacts of maize breeding research in developing countries.agricultural household model, consumer goods characteristics, production inputs, technology attributes, non-separability, censored equations, Zambia, Crop Production/Industries, C21, D1, O3, Q12, Q16,

External review and impact assessment of the African Highlands Initiative (AHI) : program evaluation report

Annexes not includedThe African Highlands Initiative (AHI), established in 1995, is an ecoregional program of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). This external review and impact assessment (ERIA) analyzes program progress and assesses AHI’s performance in the region. Designed to develop and test Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) methodologies, the AHI employed effective participatory approaches to work with farmers through action research. The programme provided a general capacity to address from the bottom-up, the main entry points required by farmers

External review and impact assessment of the African Highlands Initative (AHI) : brief of the program evaluation report

Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) assumes a participatory approach in development-oriented research. Since agro-ecosystems are driven by interactions of ecological, economic, and social variables, INRM research has to work back and forth across all these dimensions. The African Highlands Initiative (AHI) uses an approach in developing and managing its research/development programs that allows stakeholders more active roles in identifying and prioritizing research themes. The report provides a brief overview of multiple research activities. Investing in local scientists and organizations is a way to ensure the sustainability of AHI processes

Adoption and extent of conservation agriculture practices among smallholder farmers in Malawi

Understanding factors affecting farmers' adoption of improved technologies is critical to success of conservation agriculture (CA) program implementation. This study, which explored the factors that determine adoption and extent of farmers' use of the three principles of CA (i.e., minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover with crop residues, and crop rotations), was conducted in 10 target communities in 8 extension planning areas in Malawi. The primary data was collected using structured questionnaires administered to individual households. Triangulation with key informant interviews, field observations, and interactive discussions with farmers and farmer groups provided information behind contextual issues underpinning the statistical inferences. From a total of 15,854 households in the study areas, it is estimated that 18% of the smallholder farmers had adopted CA, representing an area of about 678 ha (1,675 ac; 2.1% of all cultivated land). Land area under CA constituted about 30% of total cultivated land among adopters. A random sample of 151 adopters and 149 nonadopters proportional with respect to adoption rates was drawn from various communities and interviewed using structured questionnaires. A total of 30 key informant interviews were conducted with stakeholders including staff of Total Land Care, government extension workers, agroinput suppliers, and lead farmers. The first stage of the Heckman model showed that hired labor, area of land cultivated, membership to farmer group, and district influenced farmers' decisions to adopt CA. The second stage of Heckman model results suggested that total cultivated land, duration of practicing CA, and district influenced farmers' decisions to extend their land to CA. Our study can be used to show the agency and social structures that are likely to influence adoption and extent of CA. Future policy should address ways to provide access to information and long-term support to farmers to enable them to embrace the technology fully