The geography of snake reproductive mode: a global analysis of the evolution of snake viviparity

Aim : Although most reptiles are oviparous, viviparity is a commonmode of reproduction in squamates and has evolved multiple times in different lineages.We test two prevailing hypotheses regarding the biogeography of reptile reproductive modes to evaluate the selective forces driving the evolution of viviparity in snakes. The cold climate hypothesis posits that viviparity is selected for in cold climates, whereas the climatic predictability hypothesis predicts that viviparity is advantageous in seasonal climates. Methods : We collated detailed distribution maps and reproductive mode data for 2663 species of the world’s terrestrial alethinophidian snakes.We studied the relationship between snake reproductive mode and environmental predictors. We applied both an ecological and an evolutionary approach to study snake reproductive mode by performing the analyses at the assemblage level and species level, respectively. We analysed our data at the global and continental scales to learn whether tendencies to viviparity are similar world-wide. Results : We found strong support for the cold climate hypothesis and the assumption that viviparity is an adaptation to cold environments. There was little support for the climatic predictability hypothesis. Nonetheless, viviparous species are not restricted to cold environments. Main conclusions : We conclude that viviparity is adaptive in cold climates, but not necessarily in unpredictable/seasonal climates. Current distributions may not reflect the climate at the time and place of speciation.We suspect many viviparous snakes inhabiting warm climates are members of lineages that originated in colder regions, and their occurrence in maladaptive environments is a result of phylogenetic conservatism

The distribution of the Bururi Long-fingered Frog (Cardioglossa cyaneospila, family Arthroleptidae), a poorly known Albertine Rift endemic

The species diversity of the frog genus Cardioglossa (family Arthroleptidae) is concentrated in the Lower Guinean Forest Zone of Central Africa with most of the 19 species occurring in Cameroon and neighboring countries (Amiet 1972a,b; Blackburn 2008; Hirschfeld et al. 2015). These small leaf-litter frogs are typically found in primary or secondary forest, have shrill whistling calls, are characterized by a variety of color patterns, and lay terrestrial eggs that hatch and develop into elongate, stream-adapted tadpoles (Amiet 1972a,b, 1973; Rödel et al. 2001; Hirschfeld et al. 2012). One of the most poorly known species—the Bururi Long-fingered Frog Cardioglossa cyaneospila Laurent, 1950—is also among the most geographically peripheral to the rest of the species diversity. To date, it is known only from two locations in Burundi and four in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, regions in which armed conflicts have long hampered scientific research. In this short contribution, we (1) document both new and long unpublished records of C. cyaneospila, associate these with known museum records, and extend its geographic range, (2) highlight fruitful areas for future field surveys based on predicting an environmental envelope for this species, and (3) summarize what little is known of its natural historyFil: Blackburn, David C.. University of Florida; Estados UnidosFil: Boix, Christian. Africa Geographic; SudáfricaFil: Greenbaum, Eli. University of Texas at El Paso; Estados UnidosFil: Fabrezi, Marissa. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Salta. Instituto de Bio y Geociencias del NOA. Universidad Nacional de Salta. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales. Museo de Ciencias Naturales. Instituto de Bio y Geociencias del NOA; ArgentinaFil: Meirte, Danny. Royal Museum of Central Africa; BélgicaFil: Plumptre, Andrew J.. Wildlife Conservation Society; Estados Unidos. Conservation Science Group; Reino UnidoFil: Stanley, Edward L.. University of Florida; Estados Unido

FIG. 14. — Tarentola ephippiata O in Checklist of the lizards of Togo (West Africa), with comments on systematics, distribution, ecology, and conservation

FIG. 14. — Tarentola ephippiata O'Shaughnessy, 1875.Published as part of Segniagbeto, Gabriel Hoinsoude, Trape, Jean-François, Afiademanyo, Komlan M., Rödel, Mark-Oliver, Ohler, Annemarie, Dubois, Alain, David, Patrick, Meirte, Danny, Glitho, Isabelle Adolé, Petrozzi, Fabio & Luiselli, Luca, 2015, Checklist of the lizards of Togo (West Africa), with comments on systematics, distribution, ecology, and conservation, pp. 381-402 in Zoosystema 37 (2) on page 394, DOI: 10.5252/z2015n2a7, http://zenodo.org/record/457780

Assessing the Threat of Amphibian Chytrid Fungus in the Albertine Rift: Past, Present and Future

<div><p><i>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</i> (<i>Bd</i>), the cause of chytridiomycosis, is a pathogenic fungus that is found worldwide and is a major contributor to amphibian declines and extinctions. We report results of a comprehensive effort to assess the distribution and threat of <i>Bd</i> in one of the Earth’s most important biodiversity hotspots, the Albertine Rift in central Africa. In herpetological surveys conducted between 2010 and 2014, 1018 skin swabs from 17 amphibian genera in 39 sites across the Albertine Rift were tested for <i>Bd</i> by PCR. Overall, 19.5% of amphibians tested positive from all sites combined. Skin tissue samples from 163 amphibians were examined histologically; of these two had superficial epidermal intracorneal fungal colonization and lesions consistent with the disease chytridiomycosis. One amphibian was found dead during the surveys, and all others encountered appeared healthy. We found no evidence for <i>Bd</i>-induced mortality events, a finding consistent with other studies. To gain a historical perspective about <i>Bd</i> in the Albertine Rift, skin swabs from 232 museum-archived amphibians collected as voucher specimens from 1925–1994 were tested for <i>Bd</i>. Of these, one sample was positive; an Itombwe River frog (<i>Phrynobatrachus asper</i>) collected in 1950 in the Itombwe highlands. This finding represents the earliest record of <i>Bd</i> in the Democratic Republic of Congo. We modeled the distribution of <i>Bd</i> in the Albertine Rift using MaxEnt software, and trained our model for improved predictability. Our model predicts that <i>Bd</i> is currently widespread across the Albertine Rift, with moderate habitat suitability extending into the lowlands. Under climatic modeling scenarios our model predicts that optimal habitat suitability of <i>Bd</i> will decrease causing a major range contraction of the fungus by 2080. Our baseline data and modeling predictions are important for comparative studies, especially if significant changes in amphibian health status or climactic conditions are encountered in the future.</p></div

MaxEnt response curves illustrate how the likelihood for <i>Bd</i> occurrence is influenced by maximum temperature of warmest month (Bio5) and the mean annual precipitation (Bio12).

<p>A. Shows the probability of presence of <i>Bd</i> as it relates to Bio5 when all other environmental variables are kept at their average values. B. Shows the same as in A, except that Bio5 alone was used for model calibration. C. Shows the probability of presence of <i>Bd</i> as it relates to Bio12 when all other environmental variables are kept at their average values. D. Shows the same except that Bio12 alone was used for model calibration. The red line is the mean of 100 bootstrap runs with +/- one standard deviation (blue).</p

<i>Bd</i> prevalence in sampled amphibians in current or proposed protected areas throughout the Albertine Rift.

<p><i>Bd</i> prevalence in sampled amphibians in current or proposed protected areas throughout the Albertine Rift.</p

Prevalence of <i>Bd</i> positive genera in tested samples (CI, Wilsons score).

<p>Prevalence of <i>Bd</i> positive genera in tested samples (CI, Wilsons score).</p

Predicted future habitat suitability and <i>Bd</i> distribution in 2080.

<p>A. Illustrates the predicted current distribution and risk of <i>Bd</i> to amphibians in 2015 using all locations in the modeling (<i>Bd</i> records obtained in this study and previous studies [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0145841#pone.0145841.ref029" target="_blank">29</a>–<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0145841#pone.0145841.ref032" target="_blank">32</a>]). B. An average of the model output from the three General Circulation Models that shows the future distribution of where amphibians are likely to be at risk for <i>Bd</i> infection in 2080 under the A2a scenario. Our results predict a large range contraction of suitable habitat for <i>Bd</i> with future climate change.</p

Genera assessed for the disease chytridiomycosis that were also <i>Bd</i> positive by PCR.

<p>Genera assessed for the disease chytridiomycosis that were also <i>Bd</i> positive by PCR.</p

Global Protected Areas as refuges for amphibians and reptiles under climate change

Protected Areas (PAs) are the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation. Here,we collated distributional data for >14,000 (~70% of) species of amphibians and reptiles (herpetofauna) to perform a global assessment of the conservation effectiveness of PAs using species distribution models. Our analysesreveal that >91% of herpetofauna species are currently distributed in PAs, andthat this proportion will remain unaltered under future climate change.Indeed, loss of species’ distributional ranges will be lower inside PAs than outside them. There fore, the proportion of effectively protected species is predicted to increase. However, over 7.8% of species currently occur outside PAs, and large spatial conservation gaps remain, mainly across tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, and across non-high-income countries.We also predict that more than 300 amphibian and 500 reptile species may goextinct under climate change over the course of the on going century. Our study highlights the importance of PAs in providing herpetofauna with refuge from climate change, and suggests ways to optimize PAs to better conserve biodiversity worldwide.Fil: Mi, Chunrong. Chinese Academy of Sciences; República de ChinaFil: Ma, Liang. Sun Yat-sen University; ChinaFil: Yang, Mengyuan. Westlake University; China. Zhejiang University; ChinaFil: Li, Xinhai. Chinese Academy of Sciences; República de ChinaFil: Meiri, Shai. Universitat Tel Aviv; IsraelFil: Roll, Uri. Ben Gurion University of the Negev; IsraelFil: Oskyrko, Oleksandra. Chinese Academy of Sciences; República de China. Taras Shevchenko National University Of Kyiv; UcraniaFil: Pincheira Donoso, Daniel. The Queens University of Belfast; IrlandaFil: Harvey, Lilly P.. University of Nottingham; Estados UnidosFil: Jablonski, Daniel. Univerzita Komenského V Bratislave; EslovaquiaFil: Safaei Mahroo, Barbod. Pars Herpetologists Institute; IránFil: Ghaffari, Hanyeh. University Of Kurdistan; IránFil: Smid, Jiri. Charles University; República Checa. Národní Muzeum; República ChecaFil: Jarvie, Scott. Otago Regional Council; Nueva ZelandaFil: Kimani, Ronnie Mwangi. National Museums Of Kenya; KeniaFil: Masroor, Rafaqat. Pakistan Museum Of Natural History; PakistánFil: Kazemi, Seyed Mahdi. Zagros Herpetological Institute; IránFil: Nneji, Lotanna Micah. University of Princeton; Estados UnidosFil: Fokoua, Arnaud Marius Tchassem. Université de Yaoundé I; CamerúnFil: Tasse Taboue, Geraud C.. Ministry Of Scientific Research And Innovation-cameroon; CamerúnFil: Bauer, Aaron. Villanova University; Estados UnidosFil: Nogueira, Cristiano. Universidade de Sao Paulo; BrasilFil: Meirte, Danny. Royal Museum For Central Africa; BélgicaFil: Chapple, David G.. Monash University; AustraliaFil: Avila, Luciano Javier. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico. Instituto Patagónico para el Estudio de los Ecosistemas Continentales; ArgentinaFil: Ribeiro Júnior, Marco Antônio. Universitat Tel Aviv; IsraelFil: Torres Carvajal, Omar. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador; EcuadorFil: Ron, Santiago R.. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador; EcuadorFil: Itescu, Yuval. Leibniz - Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries; Alemania. Freie Universität Berlin; AlemaniaFil: Wilcove, David S.. Princeton School Of Public And International Affairs; Estados Unidos. University of Princeton; Estados Unido