Dietary Exposure Among Adults in Selangor, Malaysia, to Heterocyclic Amines and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Cooked Meat and Fish

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are possible human carcinogens and potent mutagens which increase the incidence of colon, mammary, prostate, breast and other cancers in rodents. Food containing meat and fish are the most important source of exposure to HCAs and PAHs in the diet and heat-treated foods, especially those which are fried, broiled and grilled. The intake of HCAs and PAHs are influenced by the amount and type of meat and fish ingested, frequency of consumption, cooking methods, cooking temperature and duration of cooking. The aim of the present study was to determine the level of HCAs and PAHs in the most consumed foods in Selangor, Malaysia in order to estimate their exposure to these toxic compounds. The dietary intake of HCAs and PAHs in foods consumed by people in Selangor, Malaysia was determined. Levels of six HCAs, namely: 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), 2-amino-3-4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoline (MeIQ), 2-amino-3-8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4, 8-DiMeIQx), 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and 2-amino-3,7,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5f] quinoxaline (7,8-DiMeIQx) and three PAHs, fluoranthene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene were measured. Forty-two samples of meat and fish were included in the study. High-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detector and fluorescence detector was used to analyze HCAs and PAHs, respectively. Dietary food consumption data (g/day), including meat type and cooking method were obtained using food frequency questionnaires, which were completed by 600 randomly selected subjects aged above 18 years. Results of the study showed that the level of total HCAs in food samples studied ranged from 0 to 38.7 ng/g whereas the level of total PAHs was, 0 to 66.28 ng/g. Among the analyzed HCAs and PAHs, PhIP (30.6 ng/g) and fluoranthene (50.96 ng/g) showed the highest level, respectively. The highest level of total HCAs was found in grilled chicken satay (38.7 ng/g) and for PAHs it was in grilled beef satay (66.28 ng/g). The most abundant HCAs such as PhIP and MeIQx, and for PAHs such as fluoranthene were detected in the food products studied. The 4,8-DiMeIQx, 7,8-DiMeIQx (HCAs) for HCAs and benzo[a]pyrene for PAHs were found in 12 and 22% of the meat and fish dishes. The average daily intake level of HCAs was 553.7 ng/capita/day and for PAHs of 297.58 ng/capita/day. The intake of PhIP was the highest, followed by MeIQx and MeIQ, whereas intake of fluoranthene was the highest, followed by benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene. The results reveal that grilled and fried meat and fish products were the major contributors to the exposure of HCAs and PAH

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Of Mango Seed Kernel Fat Blended With Palm Oil Mid-Fraction And Palm Stearin To Formulate Cocoa Butter Replacers

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an important annual tropical fruit. Mango seed kernel (MSK) which is industrial by-product contains considerable amount of cocoa butter analogy fats. It is remarkable that no reports on the extraction of the mango seed kernel fat (MSKF) using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) have been published. The aim of this work is to blend SC-CO2 extracted MSKF with palm oil mid-fraction (POMF) and palm stearin (PS) to formulate new cocoa butter replacers (CBRs). The physico-chemical properties, thermal properties, solid fat content (SFC) and morphology for the blends of MSKF: POMF and MSKF: PS conducted using different chromatographic and thermal techniques. Optimization of the SC-CO2 extraction parameters of MSKF from MSK were conducted using central composite design (CCD) of response surface methodology (RSM). The variables considered in the study are pressure (20-50 MPa), temperature (40-80 °C), and CO2 flow rate (1-4 ml/min). The optimized fat yield was predicted to be 11.29% at 44.2 MPa, 72.2 ºC and CO2 flow rate of 3.4 ml/min which was close to the fat yield (11.7%) of Soxhlet extraction. The blends containing 70 to 85% of MSKF had physico-chemical properties like fatty acid profiles, iodine value (IV), slip melting point (SMP), saponification value (SPV) and acid value (AV) close to that of commercial CB. Results showed that the major TG ranges in all blends were POP 11-38.8%, SOS 22.1-36.9%, and POS 15.4-16.2%, respectively

Evaluation of biochemical and bioactive properties of native and imported pomegranate (Punica granatum l.) cultivars found in Bangladesh

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is one of the oldest known and nutrient rich edible fruits.Peel and Arils of three available cultivars of this fruit in Bangladesh namely, Bangladesh pomegranate, Indian-Mridula and Egypt pomegranate were analyzed to evaluate their biochemical and bioactive properties. The ash, crude fiber, lipid, moisture, pH, titratable acidity, total soluble solid, total sugar as well as bioactive properties included DPPH radical scavenging activity, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total tannin content (TTC) and vitamin C were assessed in the study. The results of the analysis showed that the ash, pH, titratable acidity, moisture, total sugar ranged from 0.26-0.93%, 3.54-4.01, 1.40-1.87%, 75.43-81.20%, 9.02-10.12 g DE/100g for aril and 1-2.03%, 3.53-4.12, 1.75-1.88%, 71.69-76.65%,21.14-29.19 g DE/100g for peel respectively. However, the seed of all cultivars contained significantly (p<0.05) higher amount of lipid and crude fiber than peel especially high lipid content in the seed of Mridula (23.30 g/100g) and peel of Egypt pomegranate (11.76 g/100g)and high crude fiber content in the seed of Bangladesh pomegranate (64.96 g/100g) and peel of Mridula (15.61 g/100g). The peel showed markedly higher DPPH radical scavenging activity, TPC, TFC, TTC and vitamin C than aril. The cultivar behaved as the most influencing factor for variation among the values of individual parameters observed. The findings suggested that pomegranate peel appeared to have more potential as health supplement and rich in natural antioxidants than aril

Fatty-Acid Profiles, Triacylglycerol Compositions, and Crystalline Structures of Bambangan-Seed Fat Extracted Using Different Solvents

Currently, research on the bambangan-fruit seed has become interesting because of its potential application as a cocoa butter alternative. This work aimed to determine the changes in the quality of the extracted bambangan-seed fat (BSF) obtained using hexane, petroleum ether, and ethanol. The extraction solvents affected the total fat content (TFC), physicochemical properties, fatty-acid profile, triacylglycerol composition, and crystalline structure of the extracted BSF. The results showed that BSF has a high content of 1,3-distreoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol (SOS). The solvent-type significantly (p < 0.05) impacts the stearic and oleic acids of the extracts, resulting in apparent changes in the high-melting symmetrical triacylglycerols, such as SOS. Petroleum-ether-extracted BSF has a high stearic acid of 33.40%, followed by that of hexane- and ethanol-extracted BSF at 29.29% and 27.84%, respectively. Moreover, the spherulitic microstructure with needle-like crystals of the extracts also ranges from 30 to 70 µm in diameter. Hexane-extracted BSF illustrated a less-dense, spherulitic, crystalline microstructure with a less-granular centre than those extracted using the other solvents. The results suggested that the quality of the extracted BSF obtained from the nonpolar solvents of hexane and petroleum ether are better than that extracted using ethanol

Effects of polar cosolvents on cocoa butter extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide

Cocoa butter was successfully extracted from cocoa liquor by supercritical carbondi oxide (SC-CO2) at 35 MPa, 60 oC and 2 mL/min with 5%, 15% and 25% cosolvents. The extraction yield of tryglicerides (TG) and fatty acid (FA) compositions were significantly influenced by the concentration of polar cosolvents. The SC-CO2 extraction efficiency was increased with cosolvent significantly. Ethanol was found to be the best cosolvent for cocoa butter extraction using SC-CO2 followed by isopropanol and acetone. The triglycerides of POP, POS and SOS were contained in the extracted cocoa butter with POS being the major component. Where palmitic, stearic and oleic were the main fatty acids in the cocoa butter samples, with stearic being the highest component. The lower molecular weight (MW) of TGs and FAs showed the higher selectivity compared to the high MW of TGs and FAs. Thus, they were fractionated during the first stage of SC-CO2 process

Effects of different types of soy sauce on the formation of heterocyclic amines in roasted chicken

The objective of the study was to determine the effect of different types of soy sauce and marinating time on the formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) in roasted chicken. Chicken breast samples were marinated with sweet, salty, light and dark soy sauce at 0, 3, 6 and 12 h (control treatment was the chicken without marinade). The concentrations of free amino acids, sugars and creatinine were determined before roasting while HCA concentrations were determined after roasting. All types of soy sauce significantly increased (p ≤ 0.05) the concentration of HCAs in roasted chicken with increasing marinating time. The highest increment of total concentration of HCAs was found in samples marinated with light soy sauce (887%) followed by dark (375%), salty (193%) and sweet (169%) at 12 h. PhIP (2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine) showed a substantial reduction in samples only momentarily marinated with sweet, salty and dark soy sauce (0 h). Free amino acids were found to be more strongly correlated with the formation of HCAs than reducing sugars or creatinine

Extraction and analytical methods for determination of sunset yellow (E110)—a review

Sunset Yellow (E110) is a water-soluble, orange-red coloured powder and synthetic azo-dye that has been used widely in food industries for aesthetic purpose. Sensitivity reaction, hyperactivity and depressing effect on cellular immune responses are the example of adverse health effects resulting from ove rconsumption of Sunset Yellow. Due to the concern on these possible health defects, World Health Organization (WHO) with Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have established the internationally recognized standard of maximum permitted level for this dye in Codex Alimentarius based on the food and beverage types. The acceptable daily intake (ADI) of Sunset Yellow set by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is 4 mg/kg bw/day. Recently, there are several analytical methods that have been reported for determination of Sunset Yellow. Herein, we critically reviewed those existing methods applied for the analysis of Sunset Yellow such as high-performance liquid chromatography, electrochemical sensor, spectrophotometric, liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry, capillary electrophoresis, thin-layer chromatography and immunological method. A brief description on the use of different extraction methods such as solid-phase, liquid-liquid, ultrasound-assisted and cloud-point extractions has been presented. Thus, this review paper is intended as a guideline or idea in choosing a suitable and effective extraction and analytical methods for detection of Sunset Yellow in commercial food and beverage products

Characteristics of bambangan kernel fat fractions produced by solvent fractionation and their potential industrial applications

Given the demand for new fats and oils, and the limited research on bambangan kernel fat (BKF), this study aimed to fractionate BKF and to determine its physicochemical properties such as fatty acids, iodine value (IV), acid value, peroxide value, slip melting point (SMP), and solid fat content (SFC). The major fatty acids of stearin fractions were palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids, with the first stearin having a higher stearic acid (48.50%) but lower oleic acid (33.76%) content than the second stearin. High SMP (36.3°C) and low IV (39.9 g iodine/100g) values were found in Fraction‐III compared to Fraction‐I. The SFC did not drop to 0% at body temperature, which was shifted to 0% above 40°C for both the stearin fractions, which indicates it is heat‐resistant. This study shows that the BKF‐stearins fractions could be used as suitable raw materials for developing new fatty products in the food industry, especially the confectionery industries

In Vitro Infant Digestion of Whey Proteins Isolate–Lactose

The model in vitro protein digestion technique has received greater attention due to providing significant advantages compared to in vivo experiments. This research employed an in vitro infant digestive static model to examine the protein digestibility of whey proteins isolate–lactose (WPI–Lac). The polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) pattern for alpha-lactalbumin of WPI at 60 min showed no detectable bands, while the alpha-lactalbumin of the WPI–Lac was completely digested after 5 min of gastric digestion. The beta-lactoglobulin of the WPI–Lac was found to be similar to the beta-lactoglobulin of the WPI, being insignificant at pH 3.0. The alpha-lactalbumin of the WPI decreased after 100 min of duodenal digestion at pH 6.5, and the WPI–Lac was completely digested after 60 min. The peptides were identified as ~2 kilodalton (kDa) in conjugated protein, which indicated that the level of degradation of the protein was high, due to the hydrolysis progress. The conjugated protein increased the responsiveness to digestive proteolysis, potentially leading to the release of immunogenic protein by lactose, and to the creation of hypoallergenic protein

Extraction of fish oil from the skin of Indian mackerel using supercritical fluids.

The total oil was extracted from the ground skin of Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) using various techniques of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) at 20–35 MPa and 45–75 °C and by the Soxhlet method for comparison. The oil yield increased with pressure and temperature and the highest yields were 24.7, 53.2, 52.8, and 52.3/100 g sample (dry basis) for the continuous, cosolvent, soaking, and pressure swing techniques, respectively, at 35 MPa and 75 °C. The yield from the Soxhlet extraction was 53.6/100 g sample (dry basis). The CO2 consumption was 581.8, 493.6, 484.9 and 290.9 g for the continuous, cosolvent, soaking and pressure swing techniques, respectively, at 35 MPa and 75 °C. The largest recoveries of PUFA, especially the ω-3 family, were achieved from the soaking and pressure swing techniques at 35 MPa and 75 °C. Thus, the pressure swing and soaking techniques are the most effective at extracting the oil from fish skin