Milk handling practices and utilization at dairy farms and collection centers under rural and peri-urban milk value chain systems in Nakuru County, Kenya

There are increasing expectations on the compliance of food products to safety and quality standards due to consumer demand for high-quality food. The aim of this study was to determine the quality tests that are carried out on raw milk and its utilization at three milk collection centers in Olenguruone and Dundori regions of Nakuru as well as some selected dairy farms. Using a semi-structured questionnaire, data were collected from milk collection centers’ staff and farmers. Milk sampling for quality control testing was done at both the cooperative delivery points and farm level. The quality of milk handled and stored in different containers was assessed. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square and logistic regression analysis were carried out on the data. Results indicated that the average quantity of milk received at all milk collection centers was about 3687 liters per day. It was noted that most of the milk collection centers’ staff (operators) had certificates or diplomas in dairy science. Their average job experience period in the milk sector was 7 years. Majority of the farmers (90%) and transporters (94%) used plastic containers for milk handling and storage. Farmers who used plastic containers for milking were approximately three times more likely to have their milk rejected compared to those who used mazzi cans, aluminium or stainless-steel containers (p<0.05; Odds ratio =3.20). The alcohol and lactometer tests were carried out on milk received at all collection centers studied. Resazurin test was only carried out in one collection center at Olenguruone that had the required laboratory equipment. Milk quality assessment was not done at the farm level. Traditional fermented milk was the common dairy product produced from evening milk in most dairy farmers’ households. Regular education programs and seminars on milk safety and quality should be provided to both collection centers’ operators and farmers.&nbsp

Emerging Parasitic Infections in Goats in Pastoral Systems in Kenya

A cross-sectional survey of ixodid tick infestation and gastrointestinal strongylosis was carried out in 76 herds, in 25 districts in five provinces representing arid and semi-arid lands in Kenya. A total of 832 indigenous goats consisting of 500 Small East African and 332 Galla breeds were sampled.  The total number of ticks counted was 17,748, consisting of three major genera, Rhipicephalus, Boophilus and Amblyomma. The mean tick abundance per animal was 21.4 ticks, with the highest count of 111.8 ticks per animal in Tharaka Nithi district of Eastern province. The highest prevalence rate of 100% was in Tharaka Nithi and Kitui districts of Eastern province, Taita/Taveta of Coast province and Siaya and Homa Bay of Nyanza province. The mean strongyle egg count in the five provinces was 545 EPG. The ranges indicated very high counts in some herds such as 13700 EPG and 11,100 EPG in Eastern and Rift Valley. The Rift Valley recorded the highest prevalence rate of 81.7% while the Coast recorded the lowest prevalence rate of 39.7%. The ectoparasites and endoparasites will increasingly become economically important considering the increasing pressure on communal grazing land and watering points in pastoral districts of Kenya.   Key words: Goats arid and semi-arid lands, ixodid ticks, strongylosis, Kenya

Molecular Identification of Key Mastitis causing Bacteria in Dairy Goats in Kenya.

Mastitis remains one of the most common diseases of the dairy goats, causing the biggest economic loss. Use of antimicrobial treatment is the generally recommended, but only after identifying the causal organisms. The use of PCR has emerged as the most accurate in microbial identification due to several advantages, including high sensitivity and specificity. The objective of this study was to apply PCR techniques in identification of the key mastitis causing bacteria, E. coli and Staph. aureus, isolated from a farm-survey carried out on goat milk in three goat keeping regions of Kenya, Coast, Rift Valley and Nyanza. Two gene specific primers for amplification of Staph. aureus sequence targeting the nuc gene, and E. coli sequence targeting the pic gene, were used as described in the materials and methods applied to 16 randomly selected pure bacteria cultures representing the three regions.  In total six of the samples were positive for the pic gene, while five were positive for the nuc gene. Each of the genes was distributed to all the three regions. The positive identification of these genes indicates the potential for use of PCR in accurate goat mastitis diagnosis; it also indicates these mastitis causing pathogens are widespread in all dairy goat keeping regions of Kenya

Factors Influencing the Somatic Cell Counts in Goat Milk in Kenya

The dairy goat sector in Kenya is young and rapidly growing. There are many breeds being introduced e.g. the Saanen, Toggenburg and Alpine, in varying agro-climatic zones, ranging from Coast, Rift Valley and Western Kenya.    The objective of this study was to look at the impact of breed, location, parity and lactation length on Somatic Cell Counts (SCC) considering the fact that SCC thresholds are often used as parameters to determine quality standards of milk. This study demonstrated significant SCC variations amongst breeds, especially Toggenburg / Saanen, Toggenburg ? Alpine / Saanen, and Saanen / Alpine. The SCC also varied significantly amongst various study sites.  This study also established an increasing SCC with parity and lactation length.  In developing SCC as milk quality standard for Kenya Dairy Board these factors will have to be considered. Key words: Somatic cell counts, goat breeds, location, parity, lactation length

Production Challenges and Socio-Economic Impact of Dairy Goat Farming amongst Smallholder Farmers in Kenya.

Dairy goats were first introduced in Kenya in 1950s by British settler farmers in the highlands of Kenya. About 25 years ago the population was estimated at 6,000. The most recent estimate puts the dairy goat population in Kenya at 175,000. The rapid growth has been attributed to the NGOs like Heifer Project International involving smallholder farmers in a participatory approach. The objective of this study was to identify opportunities and challenges amongst smallholder dairy goat farmers, and specifically to evaluate production levels, consumption trends and potential for growth and marketing.  Sixty households were interviewed. Amongst households 826 were women of whom 304 were widows, 226 were men. The mean family size was 9.24. There were a total of 4545 children in the households, amongst them 2200 orphans.  68% households had male heads, while 32% had female heads.  However, in 74% of the households, females took charge of the daily management of the goat, while in only 26% households males were in charge. Milk production levels ranged between half a litre and ten litres, with overall mean production of 2.15 litres per goat per day. In total, 56.9% of respondents depended entirely on farming activities for livelihood, while 43.1% combined farming and off-farm activities for livelihood. Only 12% used hired labour while 88% depended entirely on family labour for managing the goats. None of the farmers had previous experience in managing a dairy goat.  There was need for a systematic practical initial training with a focus on key areas such as feeding and feed resources, breeding, milking, health and record keeping.  There was no standard record keeping format. The small pieces of land, especially in Nyanza had a negative effect on dairy goat farming in terms of pasture and fodder production.  In Oriang and Ndiru clusters all the family land available was utilized for subsistence farming. There was lack of knowledge of feeding regimes for various categories e.g. the lactating doe, flushing and kids. None of the farmers had knowledge of estimating feed weights, and making appropriate mixtures of the available feeds. Local goats were popular.  Upgrading of these goats through crossbreeding would form entry point for a large number of farmers thus increasing dairy goat population faster. Key words: Dairy goats, socio-economic, production, smallholder farmer

California Mastitis Test and Somatic Cell Counts as Indicators of Intramammary Infection in Dairy Goat in Kenya.

Intramammary Infections in goats is an important and costly disease.  Subclinical Mastitis (SCM) constitutes the greater part of this problem.  Several methods are available for diagnosis of SCM. The objective of this study was to evaluate the application of somatic cells measured indirectly by CMT, and directly by SCC – as possible markers for IMI in dairy goat mastitis. CMT was performed randomly on 138 udder halves at milking site, while in the laboratory SCC was conducted on 239 samples. Bacterial culture was done on 250 samples. The results of CMT showed that 12.3% of samples were negative, while 30.4%, 23.2% and 34.1% recorded +ve 1, 2, 3 respectively. The SCC ranged between 248 x 106 and 1693 x 106, with a mean of 869 x 106. The key bacterial isolates were Staph. aureus 58%, E.coli 40.5%. A statistical analysis to determine the strength and direction of association between CMT & SCC indicated a positive but not statistically significant correlation. ANOVA across the key bacterial isolates showed all bacteria falling between CMT mean scores of 2 and 3. The SCC showed that the key bacteria isolated had mean scores 86169 x 106 for E. coli and 8810 x 106 for Staph. aureus. There is a consensus amongst researchers in this area that a CMT scores of 2 and above are indicative of infection in goat milk. The results of this study on Staph. aureus and E. coli, and the fact that 73.9% of E. coli and 68.5% of Staph. aureus fall in the range 500,000 and 1 million cells, SCC was an accurate determinant of infection. Key words: Somatic cell counts, goat mastitis

Recommendations for dealing with waste contaminated with Ebola virus: a Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points approach

Objective To assess, within communities experiencing Ebola virus outbreaks, the risks associated with the disposal of human waste and to generate recommendations for mitigating such risks. Methods A team with expertise in the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework identified waste products from the care of individuals with Ebola virus disease and constructed, tested and confirmed flow diagrams showing the creation of such products. After listing potential hazards associated with each step in each flow diagram, the team conducted a hazard analysis, determined critical control points and made recommendations to mitigate the transmission risks at each control point. Findings The collection, transportation, cleaning and shared use of blood-soiled fomites and the shared use of latrines contaminated with blood or bloodied faeces appeared to be associated with particularly high levels of risk of Ebola virus transmission. More moderate levels of risk were associated with the collection and transportation of material contaminated with bodily fluids other than blood, shared use of latrines soiled with such fluids, the cleaning and shared use of fomites soiled with such fluids, and the contamination of the environment during the collection and transportation of blood-contaminated waste. Conclusion The risk of the waste-related transmission of Ebola virus could be reduced by the use of full personal protective equipment, appropriate hand hygiene and an appropriate disinfectant after careful cleaning. Use of the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework could facilitate rapid responses to outbreaks of emerging infectious disease

Recommendations for dealing with waste contaminated with Ebola virus: a Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points approach

Objective To assess, within communities experiencing Ebola virus outbreaks, the risks associated with the disposal of human waste and to generate recommendations for mitigating such risks. Methods A team with expertise in the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework identified waste products from the care of individuals with Ebola virus disease and constructed, tested and confirmed flow diagrams showing the creation of such products. After listing potential hazards associated with each step in each flow diagram, the team conducted a hazard analysis, determined critical control points and made recommendations to mitigate the transmission risks at each control point. Findings The collection, transportation, cleaning and shared use of blood-soiled fomites and the shared use of latrines contaminated with blood or bloodied faeces appeared to be associated with particularly high levels of risk of Ebola virus transmission. More moderate levels of risk were associated with the collection and transportation of material contaminated with bodily fluids other than blood, shared use of latrines soiled with such fluids, the cleaning and shared use of fomites soiled with such fluids, and the contamination of the environment during the collection and transportation of blood-contaminated waste. Conclusion The risk of the waste-related transmission of Ebola virus could be reduced by the use of full personal protective equipment, appropriate hand hygiene and an appropriate disinfectant after careful cleaning. Use of the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework could facilitate rapid responses to outbreaks of emerging infectious disease