Payments for Environmental Services in Watersheds: Insights From a Comparative Study of three Cases in Central America

We have compared three cases of payments for water-related environmental services (PES) in Central America, in terms of socioeconomic background, opportunity costs of forest conservation and stakeholders’ perceptions on the conditions of water resources and other issues. We found that, in general, the foregone benefits from land uses alternative to forest cover are larger than the amount paid, which apparently contradicts the economic foundation of PES schemes. A number of possible explanations are explored. The results also suggest that trade-offs between different environmental and social goals are likely to emerge in PES schemes, posing some doubts on their ability to be multipurpose instruments for environmental improvement and rural development. We also found that PES schemes may work as a conflictresolution instrument, facilitating downstream -upstream problem solving, though at the same time they might introduce changes in social perceptions of property rights.environmental services, watershed management, rural development, property rights, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua.

Los conflictos ecológico-distributivos y los indicadores de sustentabilidad

El autor estudia el metabolismo socio-económico, en términos de flujos de materiales y energía y de la producción de residuos, y clasifica y estudia los conflictos ambientales correspondientes. Presenta una tipología de conflictos acerca del uso de recursos naturales y de la contaminación. Llamamos Ecología Política al estudio de esos conflictos ecológico-distributivos. Los actores de tales conflictos usan diversos lenguajes de valoración. Por ejemplo, pueden argumentar que quieren lograr una compensación monetaria equivalente a los daños ambientales sufridos pero también pueden decir que el territorio en cuestión es sagrado o pueden apelar a la defensa de los derechos humanos o de los derechos colectivos indígenas, o pueden insistir en valores ecológicos que no pueden ser realmente expresados en dinero. La Economía Ecológica estudia las relaciones entre el crecimiento económico y el medio natural. Desde el punto de vista de la sustentabilidad «fuerte», eso requiere usar indicadores físicos como la HANPP o la Contabilidad de Flujos de Materiales. Este artículo tiene la intención de mostrar que los conflictos ecológico-distributivos pueden ser explicados e incluso previstos por esos indicadores físicos de (in)sustentabilidad.L’auteur étudie le métabolisme socio-économique, en termes de flux matériels et d’énergie et de production de déchets, classant et étudiant les conflits environnementaux correspondants. Il présente une typologie de conflits relative à l’usage de ressources naturelles et pollution. Par Ecologie Politique nous entendons l’étude de ces conflits écologico-distributifs. Les acteurs de ces conflits utilisent différents langages de mise en valeur. Par exemple, ils peuvent argumenter qu’ils veulent obtenir une compensation monétaire équivalente aux dommages environnementaux soufferts mais ils peuvent aussi affirmer que le territoire en question est sacré ou appeler à la défense des droits de l’homme ou des droits collectifs indiens, ou insister sur les valeurs écologiques qui ne peuvent réellement être exprimées en argent. L’Economie Ecologique étudie les relations entre la croissance économique et l’environnement naturel. Partant du point de vue de la durabilité « forte » exigeant l’usage d’indicateurs physiques comme la HANPP ou Comptabilité de Flux de Matériels. Cet article cherche à démontrer que les conflits écologico-distributifs peuvent s’expliquer et même être anticipés à travers ces indicateurs physiques de (non)durabilité.The author studies the social and economic metabolism, in terms of materials and energy flows and of the production of residues, and classifies and studies the corresponding environmental conflicts. He then presents a typology of conflicts on the use of natural resources and on contamination. We call Political Ecology the study of those ecological-distributive conflicts. The actors of such conflicts use diverse languages of appraisal. For example, they can argue that they want to achieve an equivalent monetary compensation to the environmental damages suffered, but also they can say that the territory in question is sacred or they can appeal to the defense of the human rights or of native collective rights, or they can insist on ecological values that cannot be really aforesaid in money. The Ecological Economy studies the relations between economic growth and the environment. From the point of view of «strong» sustainability, that requires the use of physical indicators such as the HANPP or the Materials Flows Accounting. This article intends to show that the ecological-distributive conflicts can be explained and even predicted by those physical indicators of (in)sustainability

El metabolismo social y los conflictos socio-ambientales en la India

This paper explains the methods for counting the energy and material flows in the economy, and gives the main results of the Material Flows for the economy of India between 1961 and 2008 as researched by Simron Singh et al (2012). Drawing on work done in the EJOLT project, some illustrations are given of the links between the changing social metabolism and ecological distribution conflicts, looking at responses in Odisha to bauxite mining, at conflicts on sand mining, at disputes on waste management options in Delhi and at ship dismantling in Alang, Gujarat. The aim is to show how a history of social metabolism, of socio-environmental conflicts, and of the changing valuation languages deployed by various social actors in such conflicts, could be written in a common framework.Este artículo explica los métodos seguidos para calcular los flujos de energía y de materiales en cualquier economía, y da los resultados (de Singh y otros, 2012) de los cálculos de Flujos de Materiales en la India desde 1961 hasta 2008. Incorporando investigaciones realizadas en el proyecto EJOLT, mostramos la conexión entre el cambiante metabolismo social y los conflictos de distribución ecológica, con las protestas en Odisha sobre la minería de bauxita, los conflictos sobre la “minería” de arena en varios lugares de la India, los debates sobre la gestión de la basura en Delhi, y el desguace de barcos en Alang, Gujarat. Nuestro objetivo es combinar en un solo marco la historia del metabolismo social y la historia de los conflictos socio-ambientales y los distintos lenguajes de valoración usados por los actores sociales de tales conflictos

Ecologically unequal exchange and ecological debt

This article introduces a Special Section on Ecologically Unequal Exchange (EUE), an underlying source of most of the environmental distribution conflicts in our time. The nine articles discuss theories, methodologies, and empirical case studies pertaining to ecologically unequal exchange, and address its relationship to ecological debt. Key words: Ecologically Unequal Exchange, ecological debt, political ecology   This is the introductory article in Alf Hornborg and Joan Martinez-Alier (eds.) 2016. "Ecologically unequal exchange and ecological debt", Special Section of the Journal of Political Ecology 23: 328-491

Existeix un moviment global de justícia ambiental?

Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu MdM-2015-0552Conceptes com racisme ambiental, epidemiologia popular, ecologisme dels pobres i indígenes, biopirateria o sobirania alimentària, entre molts altres, serveixen per descriure i participar en els conflictes ecològic-distributius. Són conflictes relacionats amb l'extracció i el transport de recursos i la disposició dels residus que es donen a tot el món, tal com mostren l'Atles de Justícia Ambiental i altres inventaris, els quals també presenten exemples de paralització de projectes i desenvolupament d'altres alternatives.Conceptos como racismo ambiental, epidemiología popular, ecologismo de los pobres e indígenas, biopiratería o soberanía alimentaria, entre muchos otros, sirven para describir y participar en los conflictos ecológico-distributivos. Son conflictos relacionados con la extracción y el transporte de recursos y la disposición de los residuos que se dan en todo el mundo, tal como muestran el Atlas de Justicia Ambiental y otros inventarios, los cuales también presentan ejemplos de paralización de proyectos y desarrollo de otras alternativas.Concepts such as environmental racism, popular epidemiology, environmentalism of the poor and the indigenous, biopiracy or food sovereignty, and many others, serve to describe and participate in ecological distribution conflicts. They are conflicts related to the extraction and transport of resources and disposal of waste occurring worldwide, as shown in the Atlas of Environmental Justice and other inventories, which also present examples of stopping projects and developing alternatives

Ecologismo dos pobres, Colonialismo e Metabolismo Social

InSURgência: revista de direitos e movimentos sociais. Brasília: IPDMS; PPGDH/UnB; Lumen Juris, vol. 1, n. 2, julho-dezembro de 2015, p. 8-1

Environmental justice and the SDGs: from synergies to gaps and contradictions

Through their synergies, trade-offs, and contradictions, the sustainable development goals (SDGs) have the potential to lead to environmental justices and injustices. Yet, environmental justice (EJ), and social justice more broadly, are not currently embedded within the language and spirit of the SDGs. We part from the premise that “many ‘environmental’ problems are, by their very nature, problems of justice” (Lele, Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water 4:e1224, 2017). We review progress in EJ frameworks in recent years, arguing for the need to move beyond a focus on the four principles of mainstream EJ (distribution, procedure, recognition, and capabilities) towards a more intersectional decolonial approach to environmental justice that recognises the indispensability of both humans and non-humans. EJ frameworks, and the SDGs should recognise power dynamics, complex interactions among injustices, and listens to the different ‘senses of justice’ and desires of theorists, activists, and other stakeholder from the Global South. We analyze how EJ frameworks are, or fail to be, incorporated in the SDGs with a focus on the food–water–health nexus (SDG2, 3, 6); climate-energy (SDG7, 13), conservation (SDG14, 15); and poverty and inequality (SDG1, 10). We call attention to the ‘elephant in the room’—the failure to go beyond GDP but instead include economic growth as a goal (SDG8). We argue that sustainable degrowth and intersectional decolonial environmental justices would create better conditions for the transformative changes needed to reach the broader aim of the SDGs: to leave no one behind

Green and climate colonialities: Evidence from Arctic extractivisms

This article examines 16 environmental conflicts across the Arctic that demonstrate resistance to both climate and green extractive colonialisms. Resistance movements counter green-labelled developments, such as a 350 km road project in Ambler (Alaska) needed for copper extraction; large-scale wind power industries on Sámi territories; palladium and platinum mega-projects on Dolgan, Evenks, and Sámi lands in the Russian North; as well as the biggest natural gas project in the world on the Yamalo-Nenets peninsula, promoted as "the cleanest" of all fossil fuels. The article contributes to the field of political ecology by arguing that past colonial ties mediated by fossil fuels are inextricably linked to the increase of green extractivism and climate colonialism in the Arctic, both of which are embedded in socio-ecological crises that deepen colonial relations. In most places these crises drive new extractivisms, but in others, they function as possible barriers, increasing risks and costs of extraction while not reducing the will to pursue extractivist endeavors.&nbsp

Mapping the frontiers and front lines of global environmental justice: the EJAtlas

This article highlights the need for collaborative research on ecological conflicts within a global perspective. As the social metabolism of our industrial economy increases, intensifying extractive activities and the production of waste, the related social and environmental impacts generate conflicts and resistance across the world. This expansion of global capitalism leads to greater disconnection between the diverse geographies of injustice along commodity chains. Yet, at the same time, through the globalization of governance processes and Environmental Justice (EJ) movements, local political ecologies are becoming increasingly transnational and interconnected. We first make the case for the need for new approaches to understanding such interlinked conflicts through collaborative and engaged research between academia and civil society. We then present a large-scale research project aimed at understanding the determinants of resource extraction and waste disposal conflicts globally through a collaborative mapping initiative: The EJAtlas, the Global Atlas of Environmental Justice. This article introduces the EJAtlas mapping process and its methodology, describes the process of co-design and development of the atlas, and assesses the initial outcomes and contribution of the tool for activism, advocacy and scientific knowledge. We explain how the atlas can enrich EJ studies by going beyond the isolated case study approach to offer a wider systematic evidence-based enquiry into the politics, power relations and socio-metabolic processes surrounding environmental justice struggles locally and globally. Key words: environmental justice, maps, ecological distribution conflicts, activist knowledge, political ecolog

Changing social metabolism and environmental conflicts in India and South America

Firstly, we present some environmental conflicts gathered in 2016 in the EJAtlas, selecting a few that have implied deaths of environmental defenders around the world including India and South America. Such conflicts arise from changing trends in the social metabolism. Secondly, we compare India and South America in terms of internal metabolism and international trade. We show that South America and India are at different moments in the race (concomitant with increased GDP per person) for the use of materials. South America reached a level of extraction of over 10 tons per person/year of all materials. It is unlikely that this will increase much. Maintaining this level already means environmental pressures. A substantial part goes for exports, much larger than the imports. In contrast, India was until recently at a level not much above 5 tons of material use per capita/year. If the Indian economy grows, as it is likely to do, the social metabolism will increase in volume more or less in proportion to economic growth. The use of biomass will increase much less than that of building materials and fossil fuels. This follows the regular patterns of economic growth. Internally, the Indian economy exploits some states as providers of raw materials in a pattern of ecological internal colonialism but internationally (in terms of material flows), it is not subject to 'ecologically unequal exchange', contrary to South America. Finally, we use some statistics from the EJAtlas comparing participation of indigenous and traditional populations and rates of 'success' in local struggles for environmental justice in both subcontinents, to see whether the global movement for environmental justice can help to slow down the destruction of the environment and local livelihoods and cultures. Key words: EJAtlas, material flows, economic growth, ecological distribution conflicts, environmental defenders, ecologically unequal trade, internal colonialis