A global phylogeny of butterflies reveals their evolutionary history, ancestral hosts and biogeographic origins

Butterflies are a diverse and charismatic insect group that are thought to have evolved with plants and dispersed throughout the world in response to key geological events. However, these hypotheses have not been extensively tested because a comprehensive phylogenetic framework and datasets for butterfly larval hosts and global distributions are lacking. We sequenced 391 genes from nearly 2,300 butterfly species, sampled from 90 countries and 28 specimen collections, to reconstruct a new phylogenomic tree of butterflies representing 92% of all genera. Our phylogeny has strong support for nearly all nodes and demonstrates that at least 36 butterfly tribes require reclassification. Divergence time analyses imply an origin similar to 100 million years ago for butterflies and indicate that all but one family were present before the K/Pg extinction event. We aggregated larval host datasets and global distribution records and found that butterflies are likely to have first fed on Fabaceae and originated in what is now the Americas. Soon after the Cretaceous Thermal Maximum, butterflies crossed Beringia and diversified in the Palaeotropics. Our results also reveal that most butterfly species are specialists that feed on only one larval host plant family. However, generalist butterflies that consume two or more plant families usually feed on closely related plants

Assessment and strategies for the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) conservation in Serra do Mar protected areas, Atlantic Forest

A anta (Tapirus terristris) exerce uma importante função no ecossistema, moldando a estrutura e função da paisagem e do ambiente em que ocorre. Na Mata Atlântica, restam poucas populações consideradas viáveis, devido às diversas pressões antrópicas que as ameaçam. Avaliar o estado de conservação da anta na Serra do Mar, um dos maiores remanescentes florestais do bioma, é essencial para subsidiar políticas e ações de conservação da espécie. Para isso, utilizamos parâmetros populacionais em diferentes níveis de inferência nas estimativas, assim como a pesquisa social para um melhor entendimento das ameaças e oportunidades para a conservação da espécie. No primeiro capítulo buscamos compreender como fatores ambientais e antrópicos influenciam o uso do habitat em cinco Áreas Protegidas da Serra do Mar: Parques Estaduais Turístico do Alto Ribeira (PETAR), Carlos Botelho (PECB) e Serra do Mar (PESM-NSV), Parque Nacional Guaricana (PNG) e Legado das Águas (LA). Utilizamos os modelos de ocupação single season padrão e o modelo alternativo proposto por Royle-Nichols. Variáveis ambientais (distância de corpos de água, altitude e declividade) e antrópicas (distância de borda de floresta e proporção de área antrópica) foram incorporadas na estimativa e modelagem do uso do habitat pela anta. No segundo capítulo, estimamos a densidade e o tamanho populacional das antas no Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho, descrevemos as interações humano-anta e avaliamos os dados sociais e ecológicos de maneira integrada, buscando uma estratégia interdisciplinar para nortear a tomada de decisão para a conservação da espécie. As estimativas de densidade e o tamanho populacional foram obtidas pelo Modelo Espacialmente Explícito de Captura e Recaptura, onde testamos o modelo nulo, modelos com variáveis ambientais e antrópicas e o modelo híbrido com covariável de sexo. Com os dados sociais coletados por meio de entrevistas pessoais realizamos análises descritivas e qualitativas para compreender as principais características dos stakeholders e das interações humano-anta. Os resultados indicaram que as áreas mais preservadas como o PECB, PNG e LA tiveram a maior proporção de uso pela anta, demonstrando sua importância para a conservação da espécie. Encontramos também um efeito da altitude no uso de habitat pela anta à depender da Área Protegida e, a proporção de área antrópica e a declividade, exerceram influência negativa no uso do habitat. O modelo com variação na densidade espacial foi biologicamente mais plausível, sugerindo a diferença na densidade influenciada pela altitude. Estimamos 0,46 e 0,23 indivíduos/km2 para os trechos acima a abaixo de 600m de altitude respectivamente. Identificamos a ocorrência de interações como o consumo de cultivo, a caça e o atropelamento, além de ameaças como o uso de agrotóxicos e a perseguição por cães domésticos. As interações (negativas e positivas) são favorecidas pela disponibilidade de recurso alimentar proveniente dos cultivos. A atitude negativa com relação à espécie foi observada apenas pelas pessoas que tem seu cultivo consumido pela espécie enquanto e as atitudes positivas foram frequentes, sugerindo a aceitação pelas pessoas e a possibilidade de a anta desempenhar o papel de espécie-bandeira na região. As estimativas populacionais (uso do habitat e densidade) proporcionaram um importante diagnóstico do estado de conservação da anta e contribuem para a identificação das regiões e ações prioritárias de manejo. Os dados reforçam a importância do PECB, PNG e LA na manutenção da população de antas na Mata Atlântica e a necessidade de atenção no PETAR, onde a espécie não foi detectada e no PESM-NSV, onde o uso pela espécie foi baixo. Evidenciamos a importância da avaliação interdisciplinar, onde a pesquisa social em conjunto com a pesquisa ecológica contribuiu na definição de estratégias mais específicas para garantir a conservação de espécies ameaçadas e o bem-estar das pessoas que residem no entorno das Áreas Protegidas.The lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) plays an important role in the ecosystem, shaping the structure and function of the landscape and the environment in which it occurs. In the Atlantic Forest, only a few populations remain viable, due to the several anthropic pressures that threaten them. Assessing the conservation status of tapirs in Serra do Mar, one of the largest forest remnants in the biome, is essential to support policies and actions for the conservation aiming the species conservation. For this, we used population parameters at different levels of inference in the estimates, as well as social research for a better understanding of threats and opportunities for the conservation of the species. In the first chapter, we seek to understand how environmental and anthropic factors influence the habitat use in five Protected Areas of Serra do Mar: Turístico do Alto Ribeira (PETAR), Carlos Botelho (PECB) and Serra do Mar (PESM-NSV) state parks, Guaricana National Park(PNG), and Legado das Águas (LA). We used standard single-season occupation models and in the alternative model, proposed by Royle-Nichols. We incorporate environmental (distance from water, altitude and slope) and anthropic (distance from forest edge and proportion of anthropic area) variables to estimate and model habitat use by tapir. In the second chapter, we estimated the density and population size of tapirs in the Carlos Botelho State Park, described human-tapir interactions, and evaluated social and ecological data in an integrated manner, seeking an interdisciplinary strategy to guide decision-making for the conservation of the species. Density and population size estimates were obtained by the Spatially Explicit Capture and Recapture Model, where we tested the null model, models with environmental and anthropic variables, and the hybrid model with sex as a covariate. With the social data collected through personal interviews, we performed descriptive and qualitative analyzes to understand the main characteristics of stakeholders and human-tapir interactions. The results indicated that the most preserved areas such as the PECB, PNG and LA had the highest proportion of use by tapirs, demonstrating their importance for the conservation of the species. We also found that altitude affected habitat use by tapirs depending on the Protected Area and that the rate of anthropic area and slope had negative effects on habitat use. The model with variation in spatial density was biologically more plausible, suggesting the difference in density influenced by altitude. We estimate 0.46 and 0.23 individuals/km2 for the region above and below 600m of altitude, respectively. We identified the occurrence of interactions such as crop-raiding, poaching, and road-kill, and another threats such as the use of pesticides and persecution by domestic dogs. The interactions (negative and positive) towards the species are favored by the availability of food resources from the crops. The negative attitude was observed only by the people who have their crops consumed by the species, while the positive attitudes were more frequent, suggesting acceptance by people and the possibility of the tapir playing the role of a flagship species in the region. Population estimates (habitat use and density) provide important diagnoses about conservation status of tapirs and contribute to the identification of high-priority regions and actions for management. The data reinforce the importance of PECB, PNG, and LA in maintaining the population of tapirs in the Atlantic Forest, the need for attention in PETAR, where the species was not detected, and in PESM-NSV, where habitat use was low. In addition, we highlighted the importance of interdisciplinary assessment, where social research together with ecological research contributed to the definition of strategies to guarantee the conservation of endangered species and the well-being of people who lives around Protected Areas

Estimativa populacional de muriquis-do-sul (Brachyteles arachnoides, primates, É. Geoffroy 1806) e avaliação da caça no Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho, Continuum Ecológico de Paranapiacaba, São Paulo

Muriqui is a Atlantic Forest endemic primate and is endangered. Actually, at São Paulo State, the main threat for his survival is the hunting pressure. Probably exist 1300 southern muriquis in nature, but, little is known about your conservation status, especially in continuous forest. This work was delineate to assist actions from Goals 1 and 2 of the National Action Plan for the Muriqui Conservation. For this, was estimated southern muriqui population from the north of Carlos Botelho State Park and was evaluated different areas in function of the occurrence of the hunting pressure and possible variations of habitat conditions. Were also obtained information about hunting occurrence over muriquis. Line transect census was used to estimate population density. Vegetation structural heterogeneity data were used to evaluate if possible differences between three areas could influence in the B arachnoides abundance. Census resulted in 56 muriquis subgroups registrations, in this way was obtained an estimates of 0,16 individuals/ha, estimated for the north of PECB. The southern muriqui density estimated is relatively high if compared with most of the studies done for the genus Brachyteles. Hunting doesn?t seem to influence in the different abundances found, this difference can be explained by habitat differences. Through informers selection method, eight people was interviewed with base in an semi structured script. Were also analyzed reports of the fiscalization operations accomplished by the park keepers and environmental police, from January 2008 to September 2012. The obtained data suggest the presence of two hunters profile: those interested only in the hunting, more frequent in the north of the park, and those that associate the extraction of palm with hunting activity, found in the south. This work brings the first analyses about one of the priority areas for the muriquis conservation, allowing a evaluation of southern muriqui populational status in the north of PECB. It?s observed the need of priority actions for the species conservation. As the hunting is the mean threat for the southern muriqui population, all of the actions elaborated by PAN Muriquis for the enlargement of the fiscalization measures with the purpose of reducing the pressure of the hunt in UCs are indispensable to guarantee the muriquis conservation in PECB.O muriqui é um primata endêmico da Mata Atlântica brasileira e está em perigo de extinção. Atualmente no Estado de São Paulo, a principal ameaça para a persistência da espécie é a caça. Estima-se que existam aproximadamente 1300 indivíduos de muriqui-do-sul na natureza, porém, pouco se sabe a respeito do estado de conservação da espécie, principalmente em contínuos florestais. O presente trabalho foi delineado para atender ações das Metas 1 e 2 do Plano de Ação Nacional para a Conservação dos Muriquis. Para isso foi estimada a população de muriqui-do-sul na região norte do Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho e avaliada diferentes áreas em função da ocorrência da pressão de caça e de possíveis variações de condições do habitat. Foram também obtidas informações sobre a ocorrência de caça sobre os muriquis. Para estimativa da densidade populacional de muriquis-do-sul foi utilizado o método de Censo por Transecção Linear. Dados de heterogeneidade estrutural da vegetação foram utilizados para avaliar se possíveis diferenças entre as três áreas poderiam influenciar na abundância de B. arachnoide. O censo resultou em 56 registros de subgrupos de Brachyteles arachnoides, dessa forma obteve-se uma estimativa de 0,16 indivíduos/ha, estimados para a região norte do PECB. A densidade populacional de muriqui-do-sul estimada é relativamente alta quando comparada a maioria dos estudos já realizados para o gênero Brachyteles. Adicionalmente, a caça parece não influenciar nas diferentes abundâncias encontradas, podendo ser explicadas por diferenças no habitat. Utilizando o método de seleção de foram entrevistados oito pessoas, com base em um roteiro semi-estruturado. Foram analisados também relatórios das operações de fiscalização realizadas pela equipe de guardas-parque e Polícia Ambiental de janeiro de 2008 à setembro de 2012. Os dados obtidos sugerem a presença de dois perfis de caçadores: aqueles interessados somente na caça, mais frequente na região norte e aqueles que associam a extração de palmito com a caça, encontrado na região sul. Este trabalho trouxe uma primeira análise a respeito de uma das áreas prioritárias para a conservação dos muriquis, permitindo uma avaliação do status populacional do muriqui-do-sul na região norte do PECB. Observa-se assim, a necessidade de ações prioritárias para a conservação da espécie. Pelo fato da caça ser a principal ameaça à população de muriqui-do-sul, todas as ações elaboradas pelo PAN Muriquis para a ampliação das medidas de fiscalização com a finalidade de reduzir a pressão da caça em UCs são imprescindíveis para garantir a conservação de muriquis no PECB.Dados abertos - Sucupira - Teses e dissertações (2013 a 2016

Measuring the Toughness of Primate Foods and its Ecological Value

The mechanical properties of plant foods play an important role in the feeding process, being one of many criteria for food acceptance or rejection by primates. One of the simplest justifications for this statement is the general finding that primates tend to avoid foods with high fiber. Although fiber is largely tasteless, odorless, and colorless, it imparts texture, a sensation in the mouth related to the physical properties of foods. All primates encounter such mechanical resistance when they bite into plant food, and studies on humans show that an incisal bite facilitates quick oral assessment of a property called toughness. Thus, it is feasible that primates make similar assessments of quality in this manner. Here, we review methods of measuring the toughness of primate foods, which can be used either for making general surveys of the properties of foods available to primates or for establishing the mechanisms that protect these foods from the evolved form of the dentition.Kuwait Univ, Dept Bioclin Sci, Fac Dent, Safat 13110, KuwaitArizona State Univ, Sch Human Evolut & Social Change, Tempe, AZ 85287 USAColl Sci, Dept Biol Sci, Huntington, WV 25755 USARutgers State Univ, Dept Anthropol, New Brunswick, NJ 08901 USAGeorge Washington Univ, Ctr Adv Study Hominid Paleobiol, Dept Anthropol, Washington, DC 20052 USAUniversidade Federal de São Paulo, Dept Ciencias Biol, BR-09972270 Diadema, SP, BrazilPromuriqui Assoc, BR-18230000 Sao Miguel Arcanjo, SP, BrazilGeorge Washington Univ, Sch Engn & Appl Sci, Washington, DC 20052 USAUniversidade Federal de São Paulo, Dept Ciencias Biol, BR-09972270 Diadema, SP, BrazilWeb of Scienc

New approaches to the ecological risk assessment of multiple stressors

So as to assess how emerging science and new tools can be applied to study multiple stressors at a large (ecosystem) scale and to facilitate greater integration of approaches among different scientific disciplines, a workshop was organised on 10-12 September 2014 at the Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Sydney, Australia. The present paper discusses the limitations of the current risk-assessment approaches and how multiple stressors at large scales can be better evaluated in ecological risk assessments to inform the development of more efficient and preventive management policies based on adaptive management in the future. A future risk-assessment paradigm that overcomes these limitations is presented. This paradigm includes cultural and ecological protection goals, the development of ecological scenarios, the establishment of the relevant interactions among species, potential sources of stressors, their interactions and the development of cause-effect models. It is envisaged that this will be achievable through a greater integration of approaches among different scientific disciplines and through the application of new and emerging tools such as 'big data', ecological modelling and the incorporation of ecosystem service endpoints

Functional roles of frugivores and plants shape hyper‐diverse mutualistic interactions under two antagonistic conservation scenarios

Disentangling the structure of plant–animal mutualisms shed light on how species are organized, and allow us to infer about resilience, specificity, and ultimately the consequences of the loss of functions to the ecosystem. Here we gathered fruit–frugivore interactions for all the major vertebrate taxa interacting with plants in two conservation states in the Brazilian Atlantic forest: a small patch and a continuous forest. Using a network approach, we identified individual roles played by vertebrates and plants, as well as the most relevant functional traits determining the network structure. The most important vertebrates in the continuous forest were the frugivorous characterized by the ability to swallow fruits containing small to large seeds, but they also were the first to be vanished from the small patch decades ago. Animal gape/gullet size, but not body mass, together with the greatest degrees of frugivory contributed to structure the conserved community. In the forest patch, where specialization degrees (in terms of number of interactions performed) were lost, small generalist birds and the only still living primate, along with small lipid‐rich fruits, were central in maintaining community structure. This study brings insights on the potential of conserved forests to hold important species‐rich interactions, at the same time that small patches count on small birds and small fruits with increased energetic rewards to maintain structuring under human degradation threats. Our results reemphasize the importance of preserving large continuous forest remnants to support important mutualistic interactions subjected to functional traits already lost in small degraded patches. in Portuguese is available with online material. Resumo Desemaranhar a estrutura de mutualismos entre plantas e animals nos ajuda a entender como as espécies são organizadas e nos permite inferir sobre resiliência, especificidade e, em última instância, as consequências da perda de funções para o ecossistema. Neste estudo reunimos as interações de frugivoria para todos os principais vertebrados interagindo com plantas, considerando dois estados de conservação da Mata Atlântica brasileira: uma pequena mancha e uma floresta contínua. Usando uma abordagem de rede, identificamos os papéis individuais desempenhados por vertebrados e plantas, bem como as características funcionais mais relevantes que determinam a estrutura da rede. Os vertebrados mais importantes na floresta contínua foram os frugívoros, caracterizados pela capacidade de engolir frutos contendo sementes pequenas a grandes, mas também foram os primeiros a desaparecer da pequena mancha há décadas. O tamanho da garganta do animal, mas não a massa corporal, juntamente com os maiores graus de frugivoria contribuíram para estruturar a comunidade conservada. No fragmento florestal, onde os graus de especialização (em termos de número de interações realizadas) foram perdidos, pequenos pássaros generalistas e o único primata ainda vivo, junto com pequenos frutos ricos em lipídios, foram centrais na manutenção da estrutura da comunidade. Este estudo traz insights sobre o potencial das florestas conservadas para manter importantes interações ricas em espécies, ao mesmo tempo que pequenas manchas contam com pequenos pássaros e pequenos frutos com recompensas energéticas para manter sua estrutura sob ameaças de degradação humana. Nossos resultados enfatizam a importância de preservar grandes remanescentes florestais contínuos para apoiar importantes interações mutualísticas sujeitas a características funcionais já perdidas em pequenos fragmentos degradados. We identified individual roles played by vertebrates and plants, as well as the most relevant functional traits determining network structure. The most important vertebrates in the continuous forest were frugivorous able to swallow fruits containing small to large seeds, but they also were the first to disappear from the small patch decades ago. Gape/gullet size, and the greatest degrees of frugivory contributed to structure the conserved community. In the forest patch, small generalist birds and the only still living primate, along with small lipid‐rich fruits, were central in maintaining community structure

DataSheet_1_Poaching and hunting, conflicts and health: human dimensions of wildlife conservation in the Brazilian Cerrado.xlsx

IntroductionUnderstanding human-wildlife interactions is critical to overcoming the socio-environmental crises we face worldwide. Among these interactions, poaching and hunting, human-wildlife conflict, and transmission of zoonotic diseases are major causes of biodiversity loss and detrimental to human well-being. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze wildlife poaching, feral pig hunting, human-wildlife conflict, and health issues in a region of the Brazilian Cerrado, in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. The study also focused on the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), a poached species listed as vulnerable to extinction.MethodsFrom October 2016 to September 2017, we conducted face-to-face semi-structured interviews with 51 local people from nine stakeholder groups. Interview answers and additional information compiled during the study were evaluated using coding, narrative, and co-occurrence analyses.Results and discussionWe found that the main human-wildlife conflict in the region involves feral pigs, and hunting is practiced as a population control strategy. The lowland tapir is not considered a conflictual species, as it is beloved by most people. However, tapirs are still poached, although less so than in the past, mainly for cultural reasons. Culture was the main motivation behind wildlife poaching in general. We identified 28 species and five taxa currently poached in this Cerrado region, of which 11 are used for medical and aphrodisiac purposes. Historically, wildlife poaching was linked to poor livelihood conditions and lack of support from governmental institutions during the Agrarian Reform process, becoming a cultural habit over the years. Nevertheless, wildlife poaching is less frequent than in the past, and its main barriers are surveillance, poaching prohibition by landowners, and social norm. Therefore, promoting a change in the way people relate to nature, meeting socioeconomic needs, and increasing surveillance appear to be important conservation strategies. Although feral pig hunting may replace wildlife poaching, some hunters still poach wild species, especially peccaries. Hence, it is necessary to keep hunters under surveillance, raise awareness among them, and make them allies in conservation strategies. We found a worryingly low level of awareness about disease transmission risk through bushmeat manipulation and consumption, highlighting the importance of One Health approaches.</p

DataSheet_2_Poaching and hunting, conflicts and health: human dimensions of wildlife conservation in the Brazilian Cerrado.docx

IntroductionUnderstanding human-wildlife interactions is critical to overcoming the socio-environmental crises we face worldwide. Among these interactions, poaching and hunting, human-wildlife conflict, and transmission of zoonotic diseases are major causes of biodiversity loss and detrimental to human well-being. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze wildlife poaching, feral pig hunting, human-wildlife conflict, and health issues in a region of the Brazilian Cerrado, in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. The study also focused on the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), a poached species listed as vulnerable to extinction.MethodsFrom October 2016 to September 2017, we conducted face-to-face semi-structured interviews with 51 local people from nine stakeholder groups. Interview answers and additional information compiled during the study were evaluated using coding, narrative, and co-occurrence analyses.Results and discussionWe found that the main human-wildlife conflict in the region involves feral pigs, and hunting is practiced as a population control strategy. The lowland tapir is not considered a conflictual species, as it is beloved by most people. However, tapirs are still poached, although less so than in the past, mainly for cultural reasons. Culture was the main motivation behind wildlife poaching in general. We identified 28 species and five taxa currently poached in this Cerrado region, of which 11 are used for medical and aphrodisiac purposes. Historically, wildlife poaching was linked to poor livelihood conditions and lack of support from governmental institutions during the Agrarian Reform process, becoming a cultural habit over the years. Nevertheless, wildlife poaching is less frequent than in the past, and its main barriers are surveillance, poaching prohibition by landowners, and social norm. Therefore, promoting a change in the way people relate to nature, meeting socioeconomic needs, and increasing surveillance appear to be important conservation strategies. Although feral pig hunting may replace wildlife poaching, some hunters still poach wild species, especially peccaries. Hence, it is necessary to keep hunters under surveillance, raise awareness among them, and make them allies in conservation strategies. We found a worryingly low level of awareness about disease transmission risk through bushmeat manipulation and consumption, highlighting the importance of One Health approaches.</p