Assessing attachment in middle childhood: psychometric evaluation of current self-report measures and development of a new questionnaire

Self-report questionnaires are useful and valid instruments to assess individuals’ attachment representations (Bosmans & Kerns, 2015). Yet, few measures are available for school age children, and surprisingly little is known about the psychometric properties of extant questionnaires designed to assess attachment in middle childhood. The current dissertation set out to address this lacuna and was guided by three interrelated aims. The first aim was to psychometrically evaluate existing self-report measures of attachment in middle childhood. To this end, across the first section of this dissertation, we tested the psychometric properties of three widely used self-report questionnaires to assess attachment in middle childhood: the Security Scale (SS) (Chapter 2), the short form of the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised Child version (ECR-RC) (Chapter 3), and the Preoccupied and Avoidant Coping Questionnaire (PACQ) (Chapter 4 – Study 1). We also conducted a comparative study across the PACQ and the short version of the ECR-RC (Chapter 4 – Study 2). Taken together, our results indicate that the SS, ECR-RC and PACQ are psychometrically sound instruments to assess attachment representations of mother and father among Italian children. However, further studies are needed to clarify which specific aspects of insecure attachment are measured by the PACQ-preoccupied and ECR-RC anxiety subscales. The second aim was to test and compare the psychometric properties of Harter (‘Some kids…other kids’) and Likert response formats as applied to attachment questionnaires designed for use in middle childhood (Chapter 5 – Study 2). Despite empirical evidence suggests that item response format plays a critical role in obtaining reliable and valid data (e.g., Borgers et al., 2004), less attention has been devoted to investigating which of the currently used response formats fits best with children’s cognitive characteristics and may adequately capture attachment representations in this developmental phase. In the attachment field, questionnaires designed for school age children use the “some/other” format (Harter, 2012), whereas questionnaires designed for other developmental periods (i.e., adolescence and adulthood) and subsequently adapted for use in middle childhood follow the Likert format. To address this issue, we focused on the aforementioned SS and on the short form of the ECR-RC by creating additional versions of each scale with both Harter and Likert response formats, and then compared the four versions by evaluating their psychometric properties in terms of factorial structure and criterion validity. Our findings suggest that both the ECR-RC and the SS could be used with either response format. However, because the Harter’s format carries an impersonal structure it may facilitate children’s sharing their feeling regarding their relationship with parents. The third aim was to develop an age-appropriate questionnaire – namely the Attachment in Middle Childhood Questionnaire (AMCQ) for children between 8 and 12 years of age (Chapter 6 – Study 1 and Study 2) – based on existing measures, and to examine its underlying psychometric properties in terms of factor structure, invariance across age and gender, and concurrent and convergent validity (Chapter 6 – Study 3). The questionnaire comprised two dimensions, i.e., anxiety (5 Items) and avoidance (5 Items), as well as a supplementary scale assessing perceived security (5 Items). Results provided evidence for the factorial validity and structural invariance of its underlying construct across age and gender; concurrent and convergent validity were also supported. Overall, the AMCQ is a promising tool to assess attachment in school-aged children in the Italian context, demonstrating good psychometric properties. Further research is warranted to examine its psychometric properties in other countries to establish cross-cultural invariance

Problematic Internet Use in early adolescence: The role of attachment and negative beliefs about worry

AbstractBackground and aimsProblematic Internet Use (PIU) might be a potential mental health problem. Few studies have investigated the relative contribution of individual and family factors in the development of PIU in early adolescence. The aim of the current study was to model the relationship between attachment styles, negative beliefs about worry, and PIU in early adolescence.MethodsFive hundred and thirty-eight Italian early adolescents (51% females, M age = 12.7 years, SD = 0.87) were included in this study. The pattern of relationships specified by the theoretical model was examined through path analysis.ResultsResults showed that avoidance (mother) and anxiety (father) were directly associated with PIU. Anxiety (mother) and avoidance (father) were indirectly associated with PIU via negative beliefs about worry.Discussion and conclusionsOverall, our findings show that attachment toward mother and father are differently linked to PIU and that negative beliefs about worry may play a mediating role in the association between attachment and PIU. Findings are discussed within clinical and preventive implications

Attachment and problematic Facebook use in adolescents: the mediating role of metacognitions

Background and aims: Recent research used attachment theory and the metacognitive tenet as frameworks to explain problematic Facebook use (PFU). This study aims to test, in a single model, the role of different attachment styles and metacognitions in PFU among adolescents. Methods: Two separate studies were conducted in order to establish the link between security (Study 1) and insecurity (Study 2), metacognitions, and PFU. A total of 369 and 442 Italian adolescents (age: 14–20 years old) participated in Study 1 and Study 2, respectively. Results: Path analyses revealed the relative importance of different attachment dimensions with mother and father in predicting PFU and the mediating role of metacognitions between attachment styles and PFU. Discussion and conclusion: In conclusion, since attachment styles and PFU may significantly affect adolescents’ development and well-being, the results of this study may provide some practical indications for researchers and practitioners

Assessing attachment in middle childhood: psychometric evaluation of current self-report measures and development of a new questionnaire

Self-report questionnaires are useful and valid instruments to assess individuals’ attachment representations (Bosmans & Kerns, 2015). Yet, few measures are available for school age children, and surprisingly little is known about the psychometric properties of extant questionnaires designed to assess attachment in middle childhood. The current dissertation set out to address this lacuna and was guided by three interrelated aims. The first aim was to psychometrically evaluate existing self-report measures of attachment in middle childhood. To this end, across the first section of this dissertation, we tested the psychometric properties of three widely used self-report questionnaires to assess attachment in middle childhood: the Security Scale (SS) (Chapter 2), the short form of the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised Child version (ECR-RC) (Chapter 3), and the Preoccupied and Avoidant Coping Questionnaire (PACQ) (Chapter 4 – Study 1). We also conducted a comparative study across the PACQ and the short version of the ECR-RC (Chapter 4 – Study 2). Taken together, our results indicate that the SS, ECR-RC and PACQ are psychometrically sound instruments to assess attachment representations of mother and father among Italian children. However, further studies are needed to clarify which specific aspects of insecure attachment are measured by the PACQ-preoccupied and ECR-RC anxiety subscales. The second aim was to test and compare the psychometric properties of Harter (‘Some kids…other kids’) and Likert response formats as applied to attachment questionnaires designed for use in middle childhood (Chapter 5 – Study 2). Despite empirical evidence suggests that item response format plays a critical role in obtaining reliable and valid data (e.g., Borgers et al., 2004), less attention has been devoted to investigating which of the currently used response formats fits best with children’s cognitive characteristics and may adequately capture attachment representations in this developmental phase. In the attachment field, questionnaires designed for school age children use the “some/other” format (Harter, 2012), whereas questionnaires designed for other developmental periods (i.e., adolescence and adulthood) and subsequently adapted for use in middle childhood follow the Likert format. To address this issue, we focused on the aforementioned SS and on the short form of the ECR-RC by creating additional versions of each scale with both Harter and Likert response formats, and then compared the four versions by evaluating their psychometric properties in terms of factorial structure and criterion validity. Our findings suggest that both the ECR-RC and the SS could be used with either response format. However, because the Harter’s format carries an impersonal structure it may facilitate children’s sharing their feeling regarding their relationship with parents. The third aim was to develop an age-appropriate questionnaire – namely the Attachment in Middle Childhood Questionnaire (AMCQ) for children between 8 and 12 years of age (Chapter 6 – Study 1 and Study 2) – based on existing measures, and to examine its underlying psychometric properties in terms of factor structure, invariance across age and gender, and concurrent and convergent validity (Chapter 6 – Study 3). The questionnaire comprised two dimensions, i.e., anxiety (5 Items) and avoidance (5 Items), as well as a supplementary scale assessing perceived security (5 Items). Results provided evidence for the factorial validity and structural invariance of its underlying construct across age and gender; concurrent and convergent validity were also supported. Overall, the AMCQ is a promising tool to assess attachment in school-aged children in the Italian context, demonstrating good psychometric properties. Further research is warranted to examine its psychometric properties in other countries to establish cross-cultural invariance.I questionari self-report sono strumenti utili e validi per valutare le rappresentazioni dell’attaccamento (Bosmans & Kerns, 2015). Tuttavia, sono disponibili poche misure per valutare le rappresentazioni dell’attaccamento in bambini di età scolare, e sorprendentemente poco si sa sulle proprietà psicometriche dei questionari esistenti. La presente lavoro si proponeva di affrontare questa lacuna ed è stata guidata da tre obiettivi correlati. Il primo obiettivo era valutare le proprietà psicometriche dei self-report disponibili per rilevare l’attaccamento durante la media infanzia. A tal fine, nella prima sezione di questa tesi, abbiamo testato le proprietà psicometriche di tre self-report ampiamente utilizzati per valutare l’attaccamento nella media infanzia: la Security Scale (SS) (Capitolo 2), la versione breve dell’Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised Child version (ECR-RC) (Capitolo 3) e il Preoccupied and Avoidant Coping Questionnaire (PACQ) (Capitolo 4 – Studio 1). Abbiamo inoltre condotto uno studio comparativo tra il PACQ e la versione breve dell’ECR-RC (Capitolo 4 – Studio 2). Nel complesso, i risultati hanno indicato che la SS, l’ECR-RC e il PACQ sono strumenti psicometricamente solidi per valutare le rappresentazioni dell’attaccamento verso la madre e il padre nei bambini italiani. Tuttavia, sono necessari ulteriori studi per chiarire quali aspetti specifici dell’attaccamento insicuro sono misurati dalle scale di ansia e preoccupazione incluse nell’ECR-RC e nel PACQ. Il secondo obiettivo era quello di testare e confrontare le proprietà psicometriche del formato di risposta Harter (‘alcuni bambini / altri bambini’) con il formato di risposta Likert applicati ai questionari per rilevare l’attaccamento nella media infanzia (Capitolo 5 – Studio 2). Nonostante l’evidenza empirica suggerisca che il formato di risposta degli item gioca un ruolo critico per ottenere dati affidabili e validi (Borgers et al., 2004), meno attenzione è stata dedicata allo studio di quale formato di risposta tra quelli utilizzati si adatti meglio alle caratteristiche cognitive dei bambini e sia in grado di rilevare adeguatamente le rappresentazioni dell’attaccamento in questa fase di sviluppo. Nel campo dell’attaccamento, i questionari sviluppati per bambini di età scolare utilizzano il formato ‘alcuni / altri’ (Harter, 2012), mentre i questionari sviluppati per altri periodi dello sviluppo (ad esempio, l’adolescenza e l’età adulta), e successivamente adattati per l’uso nella media infanzia, seguono il formato Likert. Per affrontare questo problema, ci siamo concentrati sulla SS e sulla forma breve dell’ECR-RC creando per ogni questionario versioni aggiuntive con i formati di risposta Harter e Likert, e abbiamo poi confrontato le quattro versioni valutando le loro proprietà psicometriche in termini di struttura fattoriale e di validità di criterio. I nostri risultati suggeriscono che sia l’ECR-RC che la SS potrebbero essere utilizzati con entrambi i formati di risposta. Tuttavia, poiché il formato Harter ha una struttura impersonale, potrebbe facilitare la condivisione dei sentimenti dei bambini riguardo al loro rapporto con i genitori. Il terzo obiettivo era sviluppare un questionario adeguato all’età, ovvero l’Attachment in Middle Childhood Questionnaire (AMCQ) per bambini tra gli 8 e i 12 anni (Capitolo 6 – Studio 1 e Studio 2) basato su misure esistenti, e di esaminare le proprietà psicometriche sottostanti in termini di struttura fattoriale, invarianza tra età e genere, e validità concorrente e convergente (Capitolo 6 – Studio 3). Il questionario comprende due dimensioni, ovvero ansia (5 item) ed evitamento (5 item), oltre ad una scala supplementare di valutazione della sicurezza percepita (5 item). I risultati hanno fornito prove della validità e dell’invarianza della sua struttura fattoriale in base all’età e al genere; sono state inoltre supportate la validità concorrente e convergente. Nel complesso, l’AMCQ è uno strumento promettente per valutare l’attaccamento nei bambini di età scolare nel contesto italiano, che dimostra buone proprietà psicometriche. Ulteriori ricerche sono necessarie per esaminare le sue proprietà psicometriche in altri paesi al fine di stabilire l’invarianza cross culturale

The brief Experiences in Close Relationships Scale - Revised Child version (ECR-RC). Factor structure and invariance across middle childhood and early adolescence

The recently developed short form of the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Revised Child version (ECR-RC) is a promising tool to assess anxious and avoidant attachment in children and adolescents. Yet, evidence concerning its validity in middle childhood is limited. This study aimed to test the psychometric properties of the 12-item ECR-RC for both mother and father forms in a sample of 448 Italian children (50.2% girls) aged between 8 and 13 years. The scale was adapted by changing the response format to make it more understandable for young children. Psychometric proprieties of the brief ECR-RC were investigated by testing its factor structure and internal consistency, invariance across middle childhood and early adolescence, and concurrent and convergent validity. A series of confirmatory factor analyses provided support for the two-factor structure (i.e., anxiety and avoidance) of the ECR-RC, and multi-group confirmatory factor analyses supported its invariance across middle childhood and early adolescence. Older children reported significantly higher latent mean values in avoidant attachment to both parents compared to their younger counterparts. Furthermore, the questionnaire showed evidence of concurrent and convergent validity. Our results indicate that the 12-item version of the ECR-RC is a psychometrically robust instrument to assess avoidance and anxiety toward mother and father among Italian children and early adolescents

Measuring attachment security via the Security Scale: Latent structure and invariance across mothers and fathers

Introduction. It is widely accepted that the parent-child emotional bond continues to exert its effects on development well beyond infancy, and the literature supports the importance of attachment beyond the preschool age (Cassidy & Shaver, 2008). Yet, the availability of valid and reliable procedures for assessing attachment in school age children is still limited (Kerns, Schlegelmilch, Morgan, & Abraham, 2005). The Security Scale (SS, Kerns, Klepac, & Cole, 1996) is a self-report measure used to assess perceived security of attachment to mother and father in children aged 8-12 years, but few studies have systematically addressed its psychometric properties (Chen, Lin, & Li, 2012; Bacro, 2011; Verschueren & Marcoen, 2006). The present study aimed to test the factor structure of the SS, and to explore its invariance across mothers and fathers in a sample of Italian school-age children. Method. One-hundred forty-nine native-born Italian children (52% girls) attending 3th and 5th grades in primary school completed the SS separately for mothers and fathers. The questionnaire consists of 15 items designed to evaluate children\u2019s perceptions of security in parent-child relationships. Each item is rated on a 4-point ordinal scale, with a higher score indicating perceptions of greater security. First, a series of confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) was performed. The data were treated as ordinal to respect the nature of items. In addition, the perception of attachment security towards both mother and father was evaluated simultaneously to take into account the dependency of observations. Second, invariance of the factor structure was explored using an ad-hoc approach based on Bootstrapping techniques. Results. CFAs showed that three of the 15 items (the same for mother and father) were extraneous to the latent structure and thus were deleted. The best model that included the correlated residuals (\u3c72 (239) = 362,069, CFI = .93, RMSEA = .059, WRMR = .994) supported the monodimensional structure of the SS. Although three items seemed to have a different relevance depending on the parent considered (overlapping of distributions of factor loadings less than 30%), the factor structure of the SS was essentially invariant across mother and father. Conclusions. Analyses showed satisfactory psychometric properties of the 12-item version of the SS in Italian children, providing provisional support for the structural invariance of its underlying construct across mothers and fathers. Future research may include other validated measures assessing attachment to test the concurrent validity of the questionnaire

Measuring Test Anxiety in Primary and Middle School Children: Psychometric Evaluation of the Test Anxiety Questionnaire for Children (TAQ-C)

The increasing use of tests to assessing academic competences has been associated with higher levels of test anxiety (TA) in children, underlining the importance of identifying children who suffer from moderate-to-high levels of TA in order to help them achieve their goals at school. This study aimed to contribute to the extant literature on the assessment of TA by examining the psychometric properties of the Test Anxiety Questionnaire for Children (TAQ-C), in primary and middle school children. In Study 1 (N=123), we selected 24 items from a wider initial pool, dividing them into scales measuring Thoughts, Autonomic Reactions, Off-Task Behaviors, and Social Derogation, to develop the TAQ-C. In Study 2 (N=899), the psychometric properties of this set of scales were assessed in students attending primary and middle school. Analyses supported the bifactor latent structure of the TAQ-C, invariance across educational levels and gender, concurrent and convergent validity and test-retest reliability. Overall, the TAQ-C seems to be a promising tool for assessing TA in primary and middle school students. Implications and directions for future research are discussed

Measuring insecure attachment in middle childhood: Psychometric evaluation of the short form of the Preoccupied and Avoidant Coping Questionnaire

The short form of the Preoccupied and Avoidant Coping Questionnaire (PACQ; Younger, Corby, Perry, 2005)is a widely used self-report questionnaire measuring insecure attachment toward mother and father in middle childhood. However, its factorial structure has not yet been examined, and evidence concerning its concurrent and convergent validity is extremely sparse. In Study 1 (N = 378, M = 9.37 years), we evaluated the factorial structure of the PACQ and its measurement invariance across Italian boys and girls. In Study 2 (N = 199, M = 9.27 years), we tested the mutual associations between the PACQ and the Experiences in Close Relationships\u2013Revised Child version (ECR-RC; Brenning, Van Petegem, Soenens, 2014), and their convergent and predictive validity. Results supported the factorial validity of the PACQ, its satisfactory internal consistency and structural invariance across child gender. However, findings lent only partial support to the association between the PACQ and the ECR-RC, and convergent and predictive validity were found only for the avoidance subscale of these questionnaires. Overall, the Italian version of the PACQ is a psychometrically sound instrument to assess insecure attachment in middle childhood, but further research is needed to shed light on the conceptual significance of the preoccupied dimension