Collective management of irrigation in eastern Spain. Integration of new technologies and water resources

Tesis por compendio[EN] The aim of this thesis is to analyze how farmer-managed systems adapt to the changes related to the integration of new water resources and drip irrigation technologies. Chapters two and three study the operating principles for water management. These principles, when applied by farmers as collective rules, result in interactions that create equity on water rights and transparency. The study area includes the irrigation system of the Huerta of Valencia (Spain). This system, well known internationally, has traditionally used surface water from the Turia River. Though recently, the use of groundwater and treated wastewater have been integrated with surface water. In this context, the analysis evolves around the subject of how the rules, developed for the sharing of surface water, have been adapted for conjunctive use of these new water resources. In addition, attention is also placed on how this process was crucial for the management of the 2005 - 2008 drought period. Results show that the operating principles, based in the proportionality and uniformity on irrigation frequency between users, underlie a system of distribution that is equitable, transparent and robust. In addition, the use of drought emergency wells and the reuse of treated wastewater have not resulted in any important conflict. These resources are used together with surface water during drought periods, increasing the guarantee of supply. However, treated wastewater use affects the uniformity on irrigation frequency among Water User Associations. Besides, Groundwater User Associations overlap in irrigated surface, farmers and infrastructure with Water User Associations using surface water. This situation results in informal conjunctive, a strategy that seems effective to deal with drought. Chapter four analyses the conversion to drip irrigation, an important technological transformation. In order to do that, institutional and management changes are examined. The cases studied are the Acequia Real del Júcar, the Júcar-Turia Channel and the General Community of Irrigators of Vall d'Uixó. At Water User Association level a centralization of managment has been observed (in the irrigation network, water resources managment and the merging of preexisting associations). In addition, the reasons to convert, the advantages, disadvantages and the satisfaction of users are also assessed. Besides, the work examines some aspects of how users adapt the use of irrigation and fertigation technology to their needs, diverging in some cases from the initial criteria of design. Chapter five discusses and compares the implications of the previous chapters. Some aspects of irrigation management and governance are assessed in a more detailed manner for the case of gravity irrigation Water Users Associations. In addition, the changes related to the introduction of drip irrigation technologies and new water resources are further compared In conclusion, the thesis reflects on current water policy dilemmas, focusing in currently prevailing water policy measures in the Valencia region, but also at world level: drip irrigation implementation, reuse of treated water and conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water. This allows identifying and comparing local aspects that influence the adoption and adaptation of new technologies and the integration of new water sources. Considering these features in irrigation policy would increase the efficacy of traditional solutions. Including these perspectives would also help to adapt new solutions to collective water and irrigation management settings characterized by significant complexity.[ES] Este proyecto de tesis tiene por objetivo analizar cómo la gestión comunitaria del riego se adapta a los cambios relacionados con la integración de nuevos recursos hídricos y tecnologías de riego localizado. Los capítulos dos y tres estudian los principios de operación para la gestión del agua. Estos principios, cuando son aplicados por los agricultores como reglas de gestión colectiva, resultan en interacciones que crean equidad entre derechos de agua y transparencia. La zona de estudio comprende el sistema de riego de la Huerta de Valencia (España), un sistema de riego conocido a nivel mundial que tradicionalmente ha utilizado los recursos superficiales del río Turia, pero que recientemente ha integrado el uso de aguas subterráneas y aguas residuales tratadas. En este marco se analiza cómo estas normas, desarrolladas sobre la base de la gestión de los recursos superficiales, se han adaptado para el uso conjunto de estos nuevos recursos y cómo este proceso ha sido crucial para la gestión del periodo de sequía ocurrido entre 2005 y 2008. Los resultados indican que los principios operativos subyacentes, basados en la proporcionalidad y la uniformidad de la frecuencia de riego entre los usuarios, son el fundamento de un sistema de reparto equitativo, transparente y robusto. Además, el uso de pozos de emergencia de sequía o de aguas residuales tratadas no ha sido fuente de conflicto, pues se utilizan durante el periodo de sequía como un recurso adicional junto con el riego de aguas superficiales, aumentando la garantía de abastecimiento. No obstante, el uso de agua depurada afecta a la uniformidad de la frecuencia de riego entre comunidades. Por otro lado las asociaciones de riego con aguas subterráneas se solapan con las comunidades de regantes y, aunque son diferentes organizaciones, comparten en gran medida superficie regable, regantes e infraestructura, resultando en un uso conjunto informal, lo que parece una estrategia efectiva de adaptación a la sequía. En el capítulo cuatro, se analiza la conversión a riego localizado, una transformación tecnológica significativa. Para ello, se examinan los cambios institucionales y de gestión. El ámbito del trabajo es la Acequia Real del Júcar, el Canal-Júcar Turia y la Comunidad General de Regantes de Vall d'Uixó. A escala de comunidad de regantes, se ha observado una transformación hacia una gestión más centralizada (de la red de riego, de los diferentes recursos hídricos y fusión de organizaciones preexistentes). Además, se centra la atención en las razones para la conversión, los pros, los contras y la satisfacción de los usuarios. También se examinan aspectos de cómo los usuarios adaptan el uso de la tecnología de riego y fertirrigación a sus necesidades, divergiendo en algunos casos del criterio de diseño inicial. En el capítulo cinco se discuten y comparan las implicaciones de los capítulos anteriores. Algunos aspectos de la gestión y gobernanza del riego se analizan de una manera más detallada para el caso de las comunidades de regantes con riego por gravedad. En conclusión, esta tesis reflexiona sobre los dilemas actuales de la gestión del agua, centrándose en las medidas que actualmente predominan en Valencia, pero también a nivel mundial: la implementación del riego localizado, la reutilización de aguas residuales tratadas y el uso conjunto de los recursos superficiales y subterráneos. Esto permite identificar y comparar aspectos locales que influyen en la adopción y adaptación de nuevas tecnologías y la integración de recursos hídricos. Tenerlos en cuenta en las políticas de regadío puede aumentar la eficacia de las soluciones tradicionales, ayudando a adaptar nuevas soluciones a ámbitos de la gestión colectiva del agua y del riego caracterizados por una elevada complejidad.[CA] El projecte de tesi té per objectiu analitzar com la gestió comunitària del reg s'adapta als canvis relacionats amb la integració de nous recursos hídrics i les tecnologies de reg per degoteig. Els capítols dos i tres estudien els principis d'operació per a la gestió de l'aigua. Aquests principis, quan són aplicats pels llauradors com a regles de gestió col¿lectiva, resulten en interaccions que creen equitat entre drets d'aigua i transparència. La zona d'estudi comprén el sistema de reg de l'Horta de València (Espanya), un sistema de reg de renom internacional que tradicionalment ha utilitzat recursos superficials del riu Túria. Però, recentment ha integrat la utilització d'aigües subterrànies i aigües residuals tractades. En aquest marc, s'analitza com les normes, desenvolupades en base a la gestió dels recursos superficials, s'han adaptat a la utilització conjunta dels nous recursos i com aquest procés ha estat crucial per a la gestió de la sequera que va tindre lloc entre 2005 i 2008. Els resultats indiquen que els principis operatius subjacents, basats en la proporcionalitat i la uniformitat en la freqüència de reg entre els usuaris, són el fonament d'un sistema de repartiment equitatiu, transparent i robust. A més a més, l'ús de pous de sequera o la reutilització d'aigües residuals tractades no ha estat cap font de conflicte, ja que s'utilitzen durant els períodes de sequera com un recurs addicional juntament amb les aigües superficials, augmentant-ne la garantia d'abastiment. No obstant això, l'ús d'aigües depurades tractades afecta la uniformitat en la freqüència de reg entre comunitats. D'altra banda, les associacions de reg amb aigües subterrànies se solapen amb les comunitats de regants i, tot i que són diferents organitzacions, comparteixen en gran mesura superfície regable, regants i infraestructura. Això genera una utilització conjunta informal que sembla una estratègia eficaç d'adaptació a la sequera. En el capítol quatre s'analitza la conversió a reg per degoteig, una transformació tecnològica significativa. Per aquest motiu, s'examinen els canvis institucionals en l'organització i la gestió derivats de la implementació de reg per degoteig. L'àmbit del treball es la Séquia Reial del Xúquer, el canal Xúquer-Túria i la Comunitat General de Regants de Vall d'Uixó. A escala de comunitat de regants s'ha observat una transformació vers una gestió més centralitzada (de la xarxa de reg, dels diferents recursos hídrics i fusió d'organitzacions preexistents). A més a més, es posa l'atenció en les raons dels llauradors per a prendre aquesta decisió, i s'estudien els pros, els contres i la satisfacció dels usuaris. També s'examinen aspectes de com els usuaris adapten la utilització de la tecnologia del reg i fertirrigació a les necessitats que tenen, cosa que divergeix en alguns casos del criteri de disseny inicial. En el capítol cinc es discuteixen i comparen les implicacions dels capítols precedents. Alguns aspectes de la gestió i governança del reg s'analitzen de una manera més detallada per al cas de les comunitats de regants amb reg per gravetat. En conclusió, la tesi reflexiona sobre els dilemes actuals de la gestió de l'aigua, i posa l'atenció en les mesures que predominen actualment en València, però també a escala mundial: la implementació del reg per degoteig, la reutilització d'aigües depurades tractades i la utilització conjunta de recursos superficials i subterranis. Això permet identificar aspectes que influeixen en l'adaptació i l'adopció de noves tecnologies i en la integració de nous recursos hídrics. Tindre'ls en compte a l'hora de dissenyar polítiques de regadiu augmentaria l'eficàcia de les solucions tradicionals i, al mateix temps, ajudaria a adaptar noves solucions a àmbits de la gestió col¿lectiva de l'aigua i del reg, caracteritzats per una complexitat elevada.Ortega Reig, MV. (2015). Collective management of irrigation in eastern Spain. Integration of new technologies and water resources [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/59245TESISPremios Extraordinarios de tesis doctoralesCompendi

Hybridizing the commons. Privatizing and outsourcing collective irrigation management after technological change in Spain

[EN] During the last decades, several regions of the world have experienced an increasingly forceful penetration by commercial service companies into irrigation water management, altering the institutional structures and procedures of common-pool resources management. In many cases, private-sector penetration takes place when water user organizations require a company to implement high-tech water control such as pressurized irrigation systems, as part of 'modernization policies'. This study focuses on four representative cases of these processes with differing degrees of private-enterprise penetration in the Valencia Region (Spain). The research analyzes the strategies of collective-private confrontation and collaboration that are emerging in irrigator communities, and characterize how they affect the management of these irrigation systems. Results show how private enterprise intrusion has unequally affected the interactions between the different components of these irrigation systems. This has created different hybrids between private and common pool-resources management institutions, as well as different autonomies, dependencies and socio-political subjects. Users' capacity to guide this coproduction process and maintain local control over their irrigation systems is essential to ensure the stability and preserve the robustness of each irrigation system. The quality of human capital and the recognition of collective water management values makes irrigation entities more robust vis-a-vis external pressures and disturbances, which in some of the cases analyzed have generated major social conflicts.This work has been done under the research project on Design and evaluation of strategies to adapt to global climate change in Mediterranean watersheds by using irrigation water intensively (ADAPTAMED) funded by the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of Spain with FEDER funding.García Molla, M.; Ortega-Reig, M.; Boelens, R.; Sanchis Ibor, C. (2020). Hybridizing the commons. Privatizing and outsourcing collective irrigation management after technological change in Spain. World Development. 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.10498313

The effects of irrigation modernization on the cost recovery of water in the Valencia Region (Spain)

The modernization of the irrigation systems has been the main strategy followed by the regional administration of the Valencia Region to cope with the structural water deficit of the region, which has been particularly severe during the last three decades. These policies have been oriented to the substitution of gravity irrigation systems for drip technology. The technological change has involved an important investment effort, developed by different public administrations and also the farmers and water users associations (WUAs). This transformation, has also involved a change in the structure of costs of the WUAs. This paper analyzes the changes in costs and tariffs of irrigation after the important investments made in the modernization of irrigation. The effects of subsidies on the percentage of the cost recovery in the services of water for irrigation are also considered. All of them have developed modernization projects in the recent years. It can be concluded that conflict between two objectives proposed by the Water Framework Directive may exist. On the one hand, significant reductions of water supply are observed; meanwhile, on the other hand, the cost recovery percentage diminishes significantly.García Molla, M.; Ortega Reig, MV.; Sanchis Ibor, C.; Avella Reus, LF. (2014). The effects of irrigation modernization on the cost recovery of water in the Valencia Region (Spain). Water Science and Technology: Water Supply. 14(3):414-420. doi:10.2166/ws.2013.215S41442014

Expansión del regadío tradicional y control local en la Real Acequia de Moncada

[EN] There are wide arrays of examples of irrigation systems that have been able to self-manage water as a common resource in the long term and in severe scarcity conditions. One of them is the Real Acequia de Moncada (RAM) Irrigators Community, with 5000 ha and 13000 owners who collectively manage water resources from the Turia River. Ostrom (1990), based in the case of the Huerta of Valencia, proposed several principles associated to the success of collective management. The objective of this work is to analyze two of them for the case of the RAM, (a) the presence of clearly defined boundaries and (b) capacity of users to modify operational rules. We contrast these principles with the information of historical archives. We show that limits have existed, allowing maintaining a relation between irrigated land and resources, and adapting to users’ needs. Local management and decision making has been also of remarkable importance.[ES] Son numerosos los ejemplos de sistemas de riego que han sido capaces de auto-gestionar el agua como un recurso comunal a largo plazo y en condiciones de marcada escasez, entre ellos el de la Comunidad de Regantes de la Real Acequia de Moncada (RAM), con 5000 ha y 13000 propietarios que gestionan de forma colectiva los recursos hídricos del río Turia. Ostrom (1990), basándose en el caso de la Huerta de Valencia, propuso varios principios asociados al éxito de la gestión comunal. El objetivo de este trabajo es revisar dos de ellos (a) la existencia de límites claramente definidos y (b) la capacidad de los usuarios de modificar las normas de operación, para el caso de la RAM, basándonos en la consulta de archivos históricos. Los resultados muestran que, pese a que el espacio regado no ha permanecido totalmente constante, sí que han existido unos límites prefijados que han permitido mantener una relación entre tierra regable y disponibilidad de recursos que se ha adaptado a las necesidades de los usuarios y donde es destacable la importancia de la gestión y toma de decisiones a escala local.Sales Martínez, V.; Ortega Reig, MV.; Palau-Salvador, G. (2015). Expansión del regadío tradicional y control local en la Real Acequia de Moncada. En Irrigation, Society and Landscape. Tribute to Tom F. Glick. Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València. 475-492. https://doi.org/10.4995/ISL2014.2014.75OCS47549

Reusing Treated Waste-Water from a Circular Economy Perspective. The Case of the Real Acequia de Moncada in Valencia (Spain)

One of the most important challenges that agriculture faces is sustainable water management and its adaptation to climate change. This adaptation is more important in regions where recurrent draughts and overexploitation of water resources happen. However, historical irrigation systems, such as the Real Acequia de Moncada (RAM) in Valencia, have found innovative approaches to deal with this phenomenon. This paper analyzes the case of Massamagrell and Puçol, which reused the treated waste-water of the closest waste-water treatment plant (WWTP). The study focused from a circular economy perspective on the technological, agronomical, and social implications of this decision. Results show that there are clear benefits for both farmers and WWTP managers. On the one hand, additional nutrients and regularity in their water supply benefit farmers. On the other, WWTP managers can reuse the treated effluent in the system, contributing to the closure of the water cycle and avoiding pumping the treated water into the sea. However, more detailed information and coordination is needed among the different stakeholders. Questions regarding the illegal connection of waste pipes with the traditional irrigation or the payment of pumping costs for reuse have gone unanswered, and there is a need for better reflection from all stakeholders.Ciencias del Ma

Irrigation Post-Modernization. Farmers Envisioning Irrigation Policy in the Region of Valencia (Spain)

[EN] During the last three decades, like many other Mediterranean states, Spain has intensively promoted the modernization of irrigation, focusing mainly on the introduction of pressurized irrigation systems. Following 30 years of investment, a shift in irrigation policies is needed to solve some of the deficiencies in this modernization process and to incorporate new measures to cope with upcoming challenges generated by international markets, climate change and other social and economic processes. This paper describes and analyses the results of participatory research carried out with the water user associations in the autonomous region of Valencia, in order to define post-modernization irrigation policies. A survey and 24 local workshops involving 304 water user associations were conducted during the irrigation season of 2018 in order to form an assessment of the sector and design new irrigation policies. The results show that after 30 years of important investment, the obsolescence of the infrastructure has become the current main priority, making farmers dependent on public subsidies. New necessities have also emerged, such as renewable energies and nonconventional water resources, which farmers consider indispensable in order to reduce operating costs and guarantee water supply.This work has been developed under the framework of the research agreement "Estudio para la modernizacion del regadio en la Comunidad Valenciana", between the Universitat Politecnica de Valencia and the Generalitat Valenciana, and conducted as part of the research project "Design and evaluation of strategies to adapt to global climate change in Mediterranean watersheds by using irrigation water intensively (ADAPTAMED)" (RTI2018-101483-B-I00), funded by the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) of Spain and with EU FEDER funds.Sanchis Ibor, C.; Ortega-Reig, M.; Guillem-Garcia, A.; Carricondo, JM.; Manzano Juarez, J.; García Molla, M.; Royuela, A. (2021). Irrigation Post-Modernization. Farmers Envisioning Irrigation Policy in the Region of Valencia (Spain). 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Water International, 40(5-6), 791-808. doi:10.1080/02508060.2015.1071512La Subida de Las Tarifas Eléctricas Ahoga a Los Regantes Españoles Iagua https://www.iagua.es/noticias/tarifas/14/02/11/la-factura-electrica-de-los-regantes-se-ha-incrementado-en-mas-de-un-80-desde-2008-45084González-Pavón, C., Arviza-Valverde, J., Balbastre-Peralta, I., Carot Sierra, J. M., & Palau-Salvador, G. (2020). Are Water User Associations Prepared for a Second-Generation Modernization? The Case of the Valencian Community (Spain). Water, 12(8), 2136. doi:10.3390/w12082136Agrawal, A. (2001). Common Property Institutions and Sustainable Governance of Resources. World Development, 29(10), 1649-1672. doi:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00063-8Wheeler, S. A., Carmody, E., Grafton, R. Q., Kingsford, R. T., & Zuo, A. (2020). The rebound effect on water extraction from subsidising irrigation infrastructure in Australia. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 159, 104755. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104755Grafton, R. Q., Williams, J., Perry, C. J., Molle, F., Ringler, C., Steduto, P., … Allen, R. G. (2018). The paradox of irrigation efficiency. Science, 361(6404), 748-750. doi:10.1126/science.aat931

From local knowledge to decision making in climate change adaptation at basin scale. Application to the Jucar River Basin, Spain

[EN] Climate change is challenging the conventional approaches for water systems planning. Two main approaches are commonly implemented in the design of climate change adaptation plans: impact-oriented top-down approaches and vulnerability-oriented bottom-up approaches. In order to overcome the shortcomings of both approaches and take advantage of their strengths, we propose an integrative methodology to define adaptation strategies at basin scale, identifying and combining potential changes in water demand and water supply infrastructure along with climate variability and change. The impact of climate change on future local water availability is assessed applying a top-down approach. Local knowledge is used through a participatory bottom-up approach to foresee future scenarios of evolution of the agricultural sector and agricultural water demand, and to identify locally relevant adaptation strategies. A hydroeconomic model integrates the information from both approaches to identify a socially acceptable and cost-effective program of measures for each climate scenario. This method was applied to the Jucar basin, a highly regulated basin with a tight equilibrium between water resources and demands. The results show an important variability of climate change impacts across the basin, with main inflow reductions in the headwaters. The stakeholders prioritized the adaptation options of change to drip irrigation, use of non-conventional resources, and changes in water governance. The results obtained from the hydroeconomic model show that the portfolio of selected adaptation measures could significantly reduce the system's average annual deficit and costOpen Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. This study has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the GoNEXUS project (GA no. 101003722), as well from ADAPTAMED (RTI2018-101483-B-I00) and the former IMPADAPT project (CGL2013-48424-C2-1-R) with Spanish MINECO (Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad) and European FEDER funds at the early stages. PM-G has been also supported by a FPI grant from the PhD Training Program (BES-2014-070490) of the former MINECO.Marcos-García, P.; Pulido-Velazquez, M.; Sanchis Ibor, C.; García Molla, M.; Ortega-Reig, M.; Garcia-Prats, A.; Girard-Martin, CDP. (2023). From local knowledge to decision making in climate change adaptation at basin scale. Application to the Jucar River Basin, Spain. Climatic Change. 176(4):1-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-023-03501-8123176

Reusing Treated Waste-Water from a Circular Economy Perspective The Case of the Real Acequia de Moncada in Valencia (Spain)

[EN] One of the most important challenges that agriculture faces is sustainable water management and its adaptation to climate change. This adaptation is more important in regions where recurrent draughts and overexploitation of water resources happen. However, historical irrigation systems, such as the Real Acequia de Moncada (RAM) in Valencia, have found innovative approaches to deal with this phenomenon. This paper analyzes the case of Massamagrell and Puçol, which reused the treated waste-water of the closest waste-water treatment plant (WWTP). The study focused from a circular economy perspective on the technological, agronomical, and social implications of this decision. Results show that there are clear benefits for both farmers and WWTP managers. On the one hand, additional nutrients and regularity in their water supply benefit farmers. On the other, WWTP managers can reuse the treated effluent in the system, contributing to the closure of the water cycle and avoiding pumping the treated water into the sea. However, more detailed information and coordination is needed among the different stakeholders. Questions regarding the illegal connection of waste pipes with the traditional irrigation or the payment of pumping costs for reuse have gone unanswered, and there is a need for better reflection from all stakeholders. View Full-TextHagenvoort, J.; Ortega Reig, MV.; Botella Grau, MS.; García, C.; De Luis, A.; Palau-Salvador, G. (2019). Reusing Treated Waste-Water from a Circular Economy Perspective The Case of the Real Acequia de Moncada in Valencia (Spain). Water. 11(9):1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11091830S115119Mendoza, J. M. F., Sharmina, M., Gallego-Schmid, A., Heyes, G., & Azapagic, A. (2017). Integrating Backcasting and Eco-Design for the Circular Economy: The BECE Framework. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 21(3), 526-544. doi:10.1111/jiec.12590Van Leeuwen, K., de Vries, E., Koop, S., & Roest, K. (2018). The Energy & Raw Materials Factory: Role and Potential Contribution to the Circular Economy of the Netherlands. Environmental Management, 61(5), 786-795. doi:10.1007/s00267-018-0995-8Urban Waste Water Directive Overview http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/index_en.htmlVoulvoulis, N. (2018). Water reuse from a circular economy perspective and potential risks from an unregulated approach. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 2, 32-45. doi:10.1016/j.coesh.2018.01.005Angelakis, A. N., Bontoux, L., & Lazarova, V. (2003). Challenges and prospectives for water recycling and reuse in EU countries. Water Supply, 3(4), 59-68. doi:10.2166/ws.2003.0046Bixio, D., Thoeye, C., Wintgens, T., Ravazzini, A., Miska, V., Muston, M., … Melin, T. (2008). Water reclamation and reuse: implementation and management issues. Desalination, 218(1-3), 13-23. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.10.039Potential of Industrial Effluents for Reuse in Irrigated Agriculture: Analysis of Successful Projects in Murcia (Spain) http://www.irisproject.eu/upmedios/ckeditor/files/Potential%20of%20Industrial%20Effluents%20for%20Reuse%20in%20Irrigated%20Agriculture.pdfIglesias, R., Ortega, E., Batanero, G., & Quintas, L. (2010). Water reuse in Spain: Data overview and costs estimation of suitable treatment trains. Desalination, 263(1-3), 1-10. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.06.038Šteflová, M., Koop, S., Elelman, R., Vinyoles, J., & Van Leeuwen, C. (2018). Governing Non-Potable Water-Reuse to Alleviate Water Stress: The Case of Sabadell, Spain. Water, 10(6), 739. doi:10.3390/w10060739Hoekstra, A. Y., Mekonnen, M. M., Chapagain, A. K., Mathews, R. E., & Richter, B. D. (2012). Global Monthly Water Scarcity: Blue Water Footprints versus Blue Water Availability. PLoS ONE, 7(2), e32688. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032688Dare, A., & Mohtar, R. H. (2018). Farmer perceptions regarding irrigation with treated wastewater in the West Bank, Tunisia, and Qatar. Water International, 43(3), 460-471. doi:10.1080/02508060.2018.1453012Villamar, C.-A., Vera-Puerto, I., Rivera, D., & De la Hoz, F. (2018). Reuse and Recycling of Livestock and Municipal Wastewater in Chilean Agriculture: A Preliminary Assessment. Water, 10(6), 817. doi:10.3390/w10060817Gil-Meseguer, E., Bernabé-Crespo, M. B., & Gómez-Espín, J. M. (2018). Recycled Sewage - A Water Resource for Dry Regions of Southeastern Spain. Water Resources Management, 33(2), 725-737. doi:10.1007/s11269-018-2136-9Ortega-Reig, M., Palau-Salvador, G., Cascant i Sempere, M. J., Benitez-Buelga, J., Badiella, D., & Trawick, P. (2014). The integrated use of surface, ground and recycled waste water in adapting to drought in the traditional irrigation system of Valencia. Agricultural Water Management, 133, 55-64. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2013.11.004Maaß, O., & Grundmann, P. (2018). Governing Transactions and Interdependences between Linked Value Chains in a Circular Economy: The Case of Wastewater Reuse in Braunschweig (Germany). Sustainability, 10(4), 1125. doi:10.3390/su10041125Alonso, J. L., Amoros, I., Chong, S., & Garelick, H. (1996). Quantitative determination of Escherichia coli in water using CHROMagar® E. coli. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 25(3), 309-315. doi:10.1016/0167-7012(96)00002-4Doménech, E., Botella, S., Ferrús, M. A., & Escriche, I. (2013). The role of the consumer in the reduction of Listeria monocytogenes in lettuces by washing at home. Food Control, 29(1), 98-102. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.05.074Pedrero, F., Kalavrouziotis, I., Alarcón, J. J., Koukoulakis, P., & Asano, T. (2010). Use of treated municipal wastewater in irrigated agriculture—Review of some practices in Spain and Greece. Agricultural Water Management, 97(9), 1233-1241. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2010.03.003The European Critical Raw Materials Review. 26/05/2014 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-377_en.htmAl-Khashman, O. A. (2008). Chemical Evaluation of Ma’an Sewage Effluents and its Reuse in Irrigation Purposes. Water Resources Management, 23(6), 1041-1053. doi:10.1007/s11269-008-9313-1Mukhopadhyay, C., Vishwanath, S., Eshwara, V. K., Shankaranarayana, S. A., & Sagir, A. (2012). Microbial quality of well water from rural and urban households in Karnataka, India: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 5(3), 257-262. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2012.03.004Lange, B., Strathmann, M., & Oßmer, R. (2013). Performance validation of chromogenic coliform agar for the enumeration ofEscherichia coliand coliform bacteria. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 57(6), 547-553. doi:10.1111/lam.12147Ghisellini, P., Cialani, C., & Ulgiati, S. (2016). A review on circular economy: the expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems. Journal of Cleaner Production, 114, 11-32. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.007Corzo, B., de la Torre, T., Sans, C., Escorihuela, R., Navea, S., & Malfeito, J. J. (2018). Long-term evaluation of a forward osmosis-nanofiltration demonstration plant for wastewater reuse in agriculture. Chemical Engineering Journal, 338, 383-391. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2018.01.042Libutti, A., Gatta, G., Gagliardi, A., Vergine, P., Pollice, A., Beneduce, L., … Tarantino, E. (2018). Agro-industrial wastewater reuse for irrigation of a vegetable crop succession under Mediterranean conditions. Agricultural Water Management, 196, 1-14. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2017.10.015Pedrero, F., Mounzer, O., Alarcón, J. J., Bayona, J. M., & Nicolás, E. (2012). The viability of irrigating mandarin trees with saline reclaimed water in a semi-arid Mediterranean region: a preliminary assessment. Irrigation Science, 31(4), 759-768. doi:10.1007/s00271-012-0359-8Maheux, A. F., Boudreau, D. K., Bisson, M.-A., Dion-Dupont, V., Bouchard, S., Nkuranga, M., … Rodriguez, M. J. (2014). Molecular Method for Detection of Total Coliforms in Drinking Water Samples. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 80(14), 4074-4084. doi:10.1128/aem.00546-14Nagara, G., Lam, W.-H., Lee, N. C. H., Othman, F., & Shaaban, M. G. (2014). Comparative SWOT Analysis for Water Solutions in Asia and Africa. Water Resources Management, 29(1), 125-138. doi:10.1007/s11269-014-0831-

European shrinking rural areas: Key messages for a refreshed long-term vision.

The paper begins with a discussion of the concept of 'shrinking', and its origins, outside the realm of rural development. Building on this, the paper shows the distribution of shrinking rural areas across Europe. Using both the project's literature review and findings from its eight case studies the socio-economic processes which drive demographic decline in rural areas are then described. A brief account of the evolution of EU interventions to alleviate the effects of shrinking, and some remarks about the current policy/governance landscape follow. We conclude by considering how a better understanding of the problem and process of shrinking may lead to more effective interventions, within the context of a refreshed long-term vision for Rural Europe. The latter needs to fully acknowledge the expanding repertoire of opportunities confronting rural areas as COVID-19 changes in working behaviour, and the geography of economic activity, accelerate, and fulfil, previously incremental shifts in technology and markets