Sentinel-2 Data Analysis and Comparison with UAV Multispectral Images for Precision Viticulture

Precision viticulture (PV) requires the use of technologies that can detect the spatial and temporal variability of vineyards and, at the same time, allow useful information to be obtained at sustainable costs. In order to develop a cheap and easy-to-handle operational monitoring scheme for PV, the aim of this work was to evaluate the possibility of using Sentinel-2 multispectral images for long-term vineyard monitoring through the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Vigour maps of two vineyards located in northeastern Italy were computed from satellite imagery and compared with those derived from UAV multispectral images; their correspondence was evaluated from qualitative and statistical points of view. To achieve this, the UAV images were roughly resampled to 10 m pixel size in order to match the spatial resolution of the satellite imagery. Preliminary results show the potential use of open source Sentinel-2 platforms for monitoring vineyards, highlighting links with the information given in the agronomic bulletins and identifying critical areas for crop production. Despite the large differences in spatial resolution, the results of the comparison between the UAV and Sentinel-2 data were promising. However, for long-term vineyard monitoring at territory scale, further studies using multispectral sensor calibration and groundtruth data are required

Influence of milk somatic cell content on Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese yield

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of the somatic cell content (SCC) of milk on Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese yield, produced in commercial cheese factories under field conditions. The study was carried out following the production of 56 batches of Parmigiano-Reggiano in 13 commercial cheese factories by processing milk collected from Italian Friesian cattle herds. The vat-milk (V-milk) used for making each cheese batch was obtained by mixing evening milk (partially skimmed following spontaneous separation of fat overnight, natural creaming) and morning milk. The batches of cheese produced were divided into 5 classes according to the SCC value of the evening milk determined prior to natural creaming (class 1, from 0 to 200 000; 2, 201 000-300 000; 3, 301 000-400 000; 4, 401 000-500 000; 5, over 501 000 cells/ml). The cheese yield was calculated as the amount of 24-h cheese, expressed in kilograms, obtained from 100 kg of V-milk (24 h ACY). The values of fat, crude protein, true protein, casein and 24 h ACY of V-milk were negatively correlated with the somatic cell score (SCS) of the evening milk. Conversely, a positive correlation was observed between chloride and SCS. Fat, protein fractions (crude protein, casein and whey proteins), P and titratable acidity of V-milk were positively correlated with its 24 h ACY, while chloride, pH and SCS showed a negative correlation. A significant drop in 24 h ACY was observed in classes 3, 4 and 5, therefore when the SCC of the evening milk exceeded 300 000 cells/ml. Finally a lower recovery of milk fat in cheese was observed as SCC of evening milk increase

Detailed macro- and micromineral profile of milk: Effects of herd productivity, parity, and stage of lactation of cows of 6 dairy and dual-purpose breeds

The aim of this study was to quantify the major sources of variation in the levels of 15 minerals in individual milk samples collected from cows raised in multibreed dairy herds. The herds (n = 27) were classified into 2 categories, according to milk productivity. Milk productivity was based on the net energy of lactating cows' average daily milk yield. Milk samples were collected from 240 cows of 6 different breeds: 3 specialized dairy (Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss, and Jersey) and 3 dual-purpose (Simmental, Rendena, and Alpine Grey). The samples were analyzed for macro-elements (Na, Mg, P, S, K, and Ca), essential micro-elements (Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Se), and environmental micro-elements (B, Si, Sr, and Sn), using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. Data were analyzed using a linear mixed model that included fixed effects of days in milk (DIM), parity, breed, and herd productivity, and a random effect of herd-date within productivity level. Results showed that the effect of herd-date varied across minerals. It was especially large for environmental minerals (ranging from 47 to 91% of total variance) and ranged from 11 to 61% for macrominerals and essential microminerals. Milk samples collected from farms with a high level of herd productivity had a richer mineral profile than samples from low-productivity herds. Parity only influenced macrominerals, with the exception of S and Ca, while DIM influenced almost all minerals, with a few exceptions among the environmental elements. Differences in mineral profile were small between specialized and dual-purpose breeds, but they were large within the group of the specialized cows. These breed differences were reduced after adjusting for milk quality and yield, particularly in the case of milk Mg, S, Ca, Mn, and Zn levels. Milk samples from the Jersey and Brown Swiss cows had higher mineral levels (Sn excluded) than milk from the Holstein-Friesian cows; the other breeds of Alpine origin produced milk of intermediate quality. Our findings suggest that breed has a stronger effect on macrominerals and some of the essential microminerals than herd productivity, parity, and DIM. The modification of the mineral profile in milk seems possible for many minerals, but it likely depends on genetics (e.g., breed, selection) and on environmental and management factors in variable proportions according to the mineral considered

Effects of Milk Storage Temperature at the Farm on the Characteristics of Parmigiano Reggiano Cheese: Chemical Composition and Proteolysis

Parmigiano Reggiano is a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) cheese whose official production protocol provides that milk cannot be stored at less than 18 °C at the farm. The possibility of refrigerating milk at the farm is highly debated, since it should allow for the limiting of bacterial growth, thus improving the quality of the cheese. The present research aimed to study the influence of storing the milk at 9 °C on the chemical composition and proteolysis during the ripening of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese. The experimentation considered six cheese-making trials, in which both evening and morning milks were subdivided into two parts that were maintained at 9 and 20 °C. After Parmigiano Reggiano cheese-making, one of the twin wheels obtained was analyzed after 21 months of ripening. From each cheese, two different samples were taken, one from the inner zone, and the other from the outer zone. The results of the chemical analyses evidenced that milk storage at 9 °C significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced fat, crude protein, soluble nitrogen and peptone nitrogen contents. Nevertheless, the differences observed with respect to the cheese obtained with milk stored under standard condition were very small and should be considered within the “normal variations” of Parmigiano Reggiano chemical characteristics

Modeling weight loss of cheese during ripening and the influence of dairy system, parity, stage of lactation, and composition of processed milk.

The yield, flavor, and texture of ripened cheese result from numerous interrelated microbiological, biochemical, and physical reactions that take place during ripening. The aims of the present study were to propose a 2-compartment first-order kinetic model of cheese weight loss over the ripening period; to test the variation in new informative phenotypes describing this process; and to assess the effects on these traits of dairy farming system, individual farms within dairy system, animal factors, and milk composition. A total of 1,211 model cheeses were produced in the laboratory using individual 1.5-L milk samples from Brown Swiss cows reared on 83 farms located in Trento Province. During ripening (60 d; temperature 15°C, relative humidity 85%), the weight of all model cheeses was measured, and cheese yield (cheese weight/processed milk weight, %CY) was calculated at 7 intervals from cheese-making (0, 1, 7, 14, 28, 42, and 60 d). Using these measures, a 2-compartment first-order kinetic model (3-parameter equation) was developed for modeling %CY during the ripening period, as follows: [Formula: see text] , where %CYt is the %CY at ripening time t; %CYi and %CYf are the modeled %CY traits at time 0 d (%CYi = initial %CY) and at the end of a ripening period sufficient to reach a constant wheel weight (%CYf = final %CY after 60 d ripening in the case of small model cheeses); kCY is the instant rate constant for cheese weight loss (%/d). Cheese weight and protein and fat losses were calculated as the % difference between the model cheeses at 0 and after 60 d of ripening. The variation in cheese pH was calculated as the % difference between pH at 0 and after 60 d. Dairy system, individual herd within dairy system, and the cow's parity and lactation stage (tested with a linear mixed model) strongly affected almost all the traits collected during model cheese ripening. Milk fat, protein, lactose, pH, and somatic cell score also greatly affected almost all the traits, although kCY was affected only by milk protein. After including milk composition in the linear mixed model, the importance of all the herd and animal sources of variation was greatly reduced for all traits. The proposed model and novel traits could be tested, first, with the aim of establishing new monitoring procedures enabling the dairy industry to improve milk quality-based payment systems at the herd level and, second, with a view to exploring possible genetic improvements to dairy cow populations

Effects of somatic cell count on the gross composition, protein fractions and mineral content of individual ewe’s milk

The aim of the research was to evaluate the effect of two somatic cell content (SCC) levels (<265,000 and >265,000 cells/ml) on ewe milk composition, protein fractions and mineral content. Samples were collected during two years, from three different ewe herds. Each herd was surveyed four times per year, one per season. For each survey more than 10 individual milk samples were collected during morning milking and analysed for SCC. On the basis of the results, two individual milk samples were selected: one from a sheep with low milk SCC (up to 265.000 cells/mL; LCC) and one from a sheep with high milk SCC (over 265,000 and less than 1,000,000 cells/mL; HCC). In one herd, it was not possible to collect the milk samples in summer. So, a total of 44 ewe milk samples (22 comparative pairs) were collected. On each milk sample, crude protein, crude whey protein, casein, casein number, non protein nitrogen x 6.38, true protein, true whey protein, fat, lactose, dry matter, ash, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and chloride were determined. Average SCC in LCC was 170,000 and 466,000 cells/ml in HCC milk. HCC milk had lower lactose (4.05 vs. 4.60 g/100 g), casein (3.91 vs. 4.28 g/100 g), phosphorus (131.31 vs. 138.81 mg/100 g), calcium (157.28 vs. 170.48 mg/100 g) and magnesium (14.59 vs. 15.30 mg/100 g) contents than LCC milk. Additionally, HCC milk had lower casein number (76.53 vs. 79.03%) and higher contents of true whey protein (1.00 vs. 0.92 g/100 g), ash (0.90 vs. 0.87 g/100 g) and chloride (103.57 vs. 93.17 mg/100 g) than LCC milk. Somatic cell content significantly affected ewe milk quality. As a result of the higher lactose, casein, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium contents, LCC milk was more suitable for cheese making than HCC milk.Key words: Ewe milk, milk quality, chemical composition, somatic cell content

Influence of feeding flavouring-appetizing substances on activity of cows in an automatic milking system

Aim of this research was to study the effect of somatic cell count on mineral content and salt equilibria at the level of quarter milk samples. Ten Italian Friesian cows, in which two homologous quarters (front quarters in 1 cow, rear quarters in 6 cows and both rear and front quarters in 3 cows) were characterised by a milk SCC400,000 cells/mL (HC-milk), respectively, were selected. Cows were milked at quarter level during the morning milking and a single sample was collected from each selected quarter, thus, 26 quarter milk samples were collected. Compared to LC-milk, HC-milk was characterised by a lower content of phosphorus and potassium and by a higher content of both sodium and chloride. The equilibrium of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium between the colloidal and soluble phase of milk and the mineralisation degree of the casein micelles, were not different between HC and LC milk

New insights into the quality characteristics of milk from Modenese breed compared with Italian Friesian

This study examined the milk quality of the autochthonous cattle breed Modenese (MO) in comparison with Italian Friesian (IF), at peak and mid lactation, with the aim to support the interest in sustainability of the local cattle breeds in Europe. Forty-eight individual milk samples were collected from 11 MO and 14 IF pluriparous cows, housed in a free stall barn under similar conditions of feeding and management, at 8 and 21 weeks post-calving; daily milk yield (MY) and body condition score (BCS) were individually recorded. Breed differences were observed, being MY lower in MO cows, but BCS, titratable acidity, freezing point, casein (MC), total calcium (Ca), total phosphorus (P) and colloidal P contents were higher compared to IF cows. Time affected BCS, MY, milk protein (MP), MC, urea, casein P and the micellar content of colloidal Ca and colloidal inorganic P. A factorial analysis was performed and four common factors were obtained with a cumulative explained variance of 77.7% of the total original. MO milk showed a nutritionally interesting mineral profile and processing properties suitable for the production of typical cheese that could be interesting for improving the interest in the conservation of animal genetic resources

Effects of the Cooling Temperature at the Farm on Milk Maturation and Cheesemaking Process in the Manufacture of Parmigiano Reggiano PDO Cheese

Parmigiano Reggiano is a hard PDO cheese made from bovine raw milk, whose microbiological characteristics have important repercussions on cheese quality. According to the EU official production protocol, milk temperature at the farm must not drop below 18 °C. The present research aimed to study the effect of cooling milk at the farm at 9 °C on the characteristics of milk and on the cheesemaking process and losses during manufacture. Six cheesemaking trials were performed in two different dairies. In each of them, two cheesemakings were made in parallel: one with milk kept at 9 °C (TM9) and the other with milk kept at 20 °C (TM20). TM9 milk, in comparison with TM20, showed after the creaming process a significant reduction not only of total bacterial count but also of psychrotrophic and lipolytic bacteria. At the same time, TM9 milk showed a higher creaming capacity and, consequently, a lower fat content than TM20. TM9 vat milk had worst coagulation properties than TM20, which caused slightly higher loss of fat and curd fines into the whey. Nevertheless, these changes were too small to influence the efficiency of the cheesemaking process; conversely, maintaining milk at the farm at 9 °C led to a reduction of the number of spoilage bacteria

Cardiac Baroreflex, HRV, and Statistics: An Interdisciplinary Approach in Hypertension

Interests about the fine underpinnings of cardiovascular beat-by-beat variability have historical roots. Over the last decades, various aspects of the relationships between arterial pressure and heart period were taken as a proxy of the baroreflex in physiology and medicine, stimulating the interest of investigators in several interconnected scientific fields, in particular, bioengineering, neurophysiology, and clinical medicine. Studies of the overall system facilitated the emergence of a simplified negative (vagal) feedback model of the baroreflex and overshadowed the simultaneous interaction with excitatory, sympathetic positive-feedback mechanisms that would, however, better suit the model of a “paired antagonistic (parasympathetic/sympathetic) innervation of the internal organs.” From the bioengineering side, the simplicity of obtaining the series of subsequent RR intervals stimulated the analysis of beat-by-beat variations, providing a multitude of heart rate variability (HRV) indices considered as proxies of the underlying sympatho-vagal balance, and participating to the management of several important clinical conditions, such as hypertension. In this context, advanced statistical methods, used in an integrated manner and controlling for age and gender biases, might help shed new light on the relationship between cardiac baroreflex, assessed by the frequency domain index α, and the HRV indices with the varying of systolic arterial pressure (SAP) levels. The focus is also on a novel unitary Autonomic Nervous System Index (ANSI) built as a synthesis of HRV considering its three most informative proxies [RR, RR variance, and the rest-stand difference in the normalized power of low-frequency (LF) variability component]. Data from a relatively large set of healthy subjects (n = 1154) with a broad range of SAP [from normal (nNt = 778) to elevated (nHt = 232)] show that, e.g., α and ANSI significantly correlate overall (r = 0.523, p < 0.001), and that this correlation is lower in hypertensives (r = 0.444, p < 0.001) and higher in pre-hypertensives (r = 0.618, p < 0.001) than in normotensives (r = 0.5, p < 0.001). That suggests the existence of curvilinear “umbrella” patterns that might better describe the effects of the SAP states on the relationships between baroreflex and HRV. By a mix of robust, non-parametric and resampling statistical techniques, we give empirical support to this study hypothesis and show that the pre-hypertensive group results at the apex/bottom in most of the studied trends