The Death Penalty under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Some Reflections for African States: Case Law

As part of the ongoing movement in support of the abolition of the death penalty across the world, this article presents a selection of cases brought before the United Nations Human Rights Committee (the Committee) on violations of the right to life. With a special focus on Zambian cases, the objective is to demonstrate how the Committee’s views reflect its longstanding jurisprudence that the death penalty should only be applied in the most exceptional circumstances

Home at last : the re-entry adaptation of returned South African exiles

Although promoted as the most durable solution to problems caused by forced migration, voluntary repatriation has proved to be a most difficult solution owing to the numerous psychosocial, economic, legal and political problems associated with it. This thesis is a report of an investigation into the complex set of personal and social factors that determine the adaptation of returning South African exiles. In Chapter 1, an account is given in broad outline of the present state of knowledge regarding the issue of repatriation as well as psychological explanations of cultural adaptation. Re-entry into the home culture after a period of forced absence is conceptualized as one aspect of cultural adaptation. Chapter 2 looks at the historical, international context of voluntary repatriation, focusing on the evolution of international refugee policy. Against the background of the intractable problems that elude the possibility of a permanent solution, a few repatriations to African countries are reviewed. In Chapter 3, psychological studies of the refugee/exile expenence are reviewed. Early psychological research examined the refugee experience from a medical perspective. This has led to a conceptualization of forced migration as a stress provoking process, with refugees reported to have a higher incidence of psychiatric disturbance than native born populations in host countries. Not surprisingly, the term post-traumatic stress disorder has become a frequently used term in relation to refugee adaptation. With the advent of more sophisticated multivariate methods of analysis, multidimensional models of adaptation have been developed. These consider adaptation to be a product of multiple interacting factors operating at various levels, thus taking into account the complexity of the refugee situation. Finally, acculturation models, notably Berry's acculturation framework focus on how individuals who have developed in one cultural context manage to adapt to new contexts that result from migration. The acculturation approach highlights the complex interactions and patterns of continuity and change people go through in new environments. Chapter 4 reviews research which shows that returning home can be as or more disturbing than living in exile. The chapter begins by conceptualizing re-entry as part of the larger issue of cultural adaptation. Studies of returning short-term migrants are reviewed and the centrality of re-entry difficulties noted. There are comparatively fewer psychological studies of repatriation of refugees/exiles from countries of asylum. The majority of studies in this domain are carried out from diverse disciplinary backgrounds but consistently report the prominence of economic difficulties of return. In Chapter 5, the socio-economic and political context of return for South African exiles is examined. The chapter begins by highlighting the major milestones in the history of resistance to apartheid and traces events leading to the advent of a post-apartheid South Africa. Concerning the repatriation exercise, it discusses the role played by the major stakeholders, namely, the South African government, NCCR and the UNHCR. This is followed by a consideration of returning to a situation of violence and uncertainty. Reports of dissatisfaction with conditions on return were common. Problems of employment, schooling, housing and feeling unwelcome often led to deep feelings of despair among returnees. Chapter 6 gives the rationale as well as an account of the methodology adopted for the study. Berry's acculturation framework, complemented by Nicholson's transition cycle theory forms the theoretical basis on which the study is based. The various components of the study are described under the methodology section and methodological difficulties of conducting a study of this nature are highlighted. With the collection of data completed, Chapter 7 gives an account of the various preliminary steps taken to prepare the data for statistical analysis. This included checking the data for completeness, accuracy and uniformity as well as examining the properties of the scales used in the questionnaire. Chapter 8 presents the results. The descriptive section of the results indicates that the majority of respondents adapted relatively well to exile life. They had high expectations of what would happen when they returned home. These high expectations were however mostly unfulfilled upon return. Furthermore, respondents reported that they experienced re-entry difficulties at various levels of severity. In the face of such great disappointment and difficulties in adapting back, the family was reported to be the main source of social support. In terms of how close they felt to either home or exile, most returnees indicated a closer affinity with home. More detailed analysis of the data indicated that re-entry difficulties had the most important influence on adaptation outcome. Chapter 9 discusses and elaborates on these results. The return of the sample of exiles under study was overshadowed by the severe difficulties they faced as they negotiated their way back into a now alien environment. This finding verifies empirically the commonplace fact that following the experience of being forcibly uprooted, people face tremendous challenges of adapting to a country they were forced to flee. The implications of this finding are that much as repatriation has been promoted as a durable solution to the refugee 'problem', the serious material, social and emotional difficulties accompanying return render it a most problematic solution. This reinforces the argument that the most important criterion to consider in any repatriation is neither the numbers nor the orderly physical movement of people across borders but how well they adapt to conditions of living in the new place called 'home'. It also supports the contention that returning exiles are not returning to the idealized home but to a country of origin. Thus the central thesis of my study is simple enough - repatriation as it is presently conceived is regarded as a solution to the refugee problem, an end point, and not as a completely new beginning on new terrain. Yet this simple fact does not seem to have been acknowledged thus far. The many repatriations that have taken place indicate that far from being an end point, repatriation is in fact a beginning. It is my modest hope that my study will help contribute to a better understanding of the repatriation process and to approach it as the problem that it is instead of assuming that it is the solution to problems of forced migration

Engineering nanocatalysts using mixed metals for hydrodesulfurization of fuel oil

Crude oil is a complex blend containing thousands of hydrocarbons, non-hydrocarbon compounds and heavy metals. These hydrocarbons are mixed with variable quantities of sulfur-, nitrogen-, and oxygen-containing compounds. The combustion of fuel containing organosulfur compounds results in the emission of sulfur oxides (SOx) into the atmosphere. These toxic gases escape into the atmosphere resulting in air pollution, which is a large contributor to global warming. Air pollution also causes pulmonary diseases, allergies and may even lead to human death. It can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops. Thus, mandating the reduction of sulfur in organosulfur compounds in fuel to RhMo-AA/Al2O3 (73%) > RhMo-CA/Al2O3 (72%) > RhMo-EDTA/Al2O3 (68%). This could be that the addition of chelating ligand complexed both metallic species retarding sulfidation of both metals, hence lowering the HDS activity. Studies show that it is possible for the citric acid to complex with both promoter and an active metal (Mo), and this might result in the formation of molybdenum dimers, trimers and tetramers which are difficult to sulfide. XPS analysis showed that unchelated catalyst have more MoS2 phases of 63%, hence higher dispersion than the chelated catalyst, this could be the reason for high activity in RhMo/Al2O3 (88%) catalyst.Thesis (MSc) -- Faculty of Science, School of Biomolecular and Chemical Sciences, 202

Engineering nanocatalysts using mixed metals for hydrodesulfurization of fuel oil

Crude oil is a complex blend containing thousands of hydrocarbons, non-hydrocarbon compounds and heavy metals. These hydrocarbons are mixed with variable quantities of sulfur-, nitrogen-, and oxygen-containing compounds. The combustion of fuel containing organosulfur compounds results in the emission of sulfur oxides (SOx) into the atmosphere. These toxic gases escape into the atmosphere resulting in air pollution, which is a large contributor to global warming. Air pollution also causes pulmonary diseases, allergies and may even lead to human death. It can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops. Thus, mandating the reduction of sulfur in organosulfur compounds in fuel to RhMo-AA/Al2O3 (73%) > RhMo-CA/Al2O3 (72%) > RhMo-EDTA/Al2O3 (68%). This could be that the addition of chelating ligand complexed both metallic species retarding sulfidation of both metals, hence lowering the HDS activity. Studies show that it is possible for the citric acid to complex with both promoter and an active metal (Mo), and this might result in the formation of molybdenum dimers, trimers and tetramers which are difficult to sulfide. XPS analysis showed that unchelated catalyst have more MoS2 phases of 63%, hence higher dispersion than the chelated catalyst, this could be the reason for high activity in RhMo/Al2O3 (88%) catalyst.Thesis (MSc) -- Faculty of Science, School of Biomolecular and Chemical Sciences, 202

The structure of the upper ocean, atmosphere and heat fluxes - Tropical Indian Ocean

Sea surface temperatures in the tropical Indian Ocean have been shown to be inversely related to South African summer rainfall, making advanced predictions of this rainfall practicable. Such predictability has enormous potential economic benefits. However, these predictions have been purely statistical; very little is currently known about the marine-atmospheric processes in the Indian Ocean tropics. To address this lack of information, the structure of the upper ocean and lower atmosphere as well as the surface heat fluxes in the tropical Indian Ocean have been investigated. This was done by a special measurement programme on a research cruise in the region. Global gridded meteorological data have been used to complement the shipboard observations. Heat fluxes have been computed from the cruise observations and related to the main atmospheric patterns at the time. These patterns were identified from principal components analysis. Air-sea interaction could thus be estimated over the full tropical Indian Ocean. It is found that the thermocline depth is linked to the cyclonic ocean current shear and to the overlying distribution of wind stress curl. The meridional advection of air into the central Indian Ocean region is shown to modulate the characteristics of the atmospheric boundary layer in the tropical Indian Ocean. The maximum turbulent heat and moisture transports to the atmosphere are found near cyclonic atmospheric disturbances. These are the first reliable observations of the heat and moisture fluxes in that part of the tropical Indian Ocean implicated in South African rainfall. It is clear from this investigation that the synoptic atmospheric systems and the meridional flow of air are critical to enhanced atmospheric convection in the region

The vulnerability of the South African electricity transmission network infrastructure to weather and climate: A review

Meteorological factors have an influence on global energy systems. This study reviewed some of the latest research contributions from other global studies on climate change impacts, energy transportation and international collaboration in the energy-meteorology sector. It is a summary of relevant South African research on energy demand, forecasting and vulnerability to meteorological conditions. International weather-energy partnerships are growing fast, while the Global Framework for Climate Services has provided a global framework for scientific collaboration across sectors to assist with climate-related risk management and decision-making. The uptake in developing regions has remained slow, however, particularly in Africa, where basic requirements such as meteorological observations are still sought. This review found that studies on the impact that future projections of climate change and variability might have on the South African electricity transmission network were inadequate. A deeper understanding of such impacts on the electricity infrastructure would assist considerably with risk management and decision-making; consequently contributing to the sustainable provision of electricity in South Africa

The vulnerability of the South African electricity transmission network infrastructure to weather and climate: A review

Meteorological factors have an influence on global energy systems. This study reviewed some of the latest research contributions from other global studies on climate change impacts, energy transportation and international collaboration in the energy-meteorology sector. It is a summary of relevant South African research on energy demand, forecasting and vulnerability to meteorological conditions. International weather-energy partnerships are growing fast, while the Global Framework for Climate Services has provided a global framework for scientific collaboration across sectors to assist with climate-related risk management and decision-making. The uptake in developing regions has remained slow, however, particularly in Africa, where basic requirements such as meteorological observations are still sought. This review found that studies on the impact that future projections of climate change and variability might have on the South African electricity transmission network were inadequate. A deeper understanding of such impacts on the electricity infrastructure would assist considerably with risk management and decision-making; consequently contributing to the sustainable provision of electricity in South Africa

Perspectives on strategies for improving ultra-deep desulfurization of liquid fuels through hydrotreatment: Catalyst improvement and feedstock pre-treatment

Reliance on crude oil remains high while the transition to green and renewable sources of fuel is still slow. Developing and strengthening strategies for reducing sulfur emissions from crude oil is therefore imperative and makes it possible to sustainably meet stringent regulatory sulfur level legislations in end-user liquid fuels (mostly less than 10 ppm). The burden of achieving these ultra-low sulfur levels has been passed to fuel refiners who are battling to achieve ultra-deep desulfurization through conventional hydroprocessing technologies. Removal of refractory sulfur-containing compounds has been cited as the main challenge due to several limitations with the current hydroprocessing catalysts. The inhibitory effects of nitrogen-containing compounds (especially the basic ones) is one of the major concerns. Several advances have been made to develop better strategies for achieving ultra-deep desulfurization and these include: improving hydroprocessing infrastructure, improving hydroprocessing catalysts, having additional steps for removing refractory sulfur-containing compounds and improving the quality of feedstocks. Herein, we provide perspectives that emphasize the importance of further developing hydroprocessing catalysts and pre-treating feedstocks to remove nitrogen-containing compounds prior to hydroprocessing as promising strategies for sustainably achieving ultra-deep hydroprocessing

Geochemical and mineralogical characterisation of Vaalputs palaeosols : inference of paleoclimates

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Vaalputs radioactive waste disposal facility is situated in an arid region of Bushmanland currently with evapotranspiration potential that far exceeds precipitation. Dominant soil features in Vaalputs are palimpsests of climates under which they formed. Particle sizes vary drastically between horizons which suggest different modes of sediment transport. Petrographic analyses revealed euhedral habits of primary mineral feldspar within the soils of Vaalputs. This suggests a proximal source of sediments and minimal primary mineral weathering under an arid climate where euhedral grains of feldspar are maintained. The surface horizon of the soils is covered by an equigranular coarse sand of residual aeolian origin. The transition from the surface horizon to the subsurface horizons is widely marked by a pebble sized stone-line. The pebble sized material of the stone-line suggests residual accumulation during the weathering of a previously surface exposed horizon. Since deposition of subsurface sediments (15 Ma) pedogenic alteration has been active in Vaalputs. This has resulted to a complex soil system which displays varied forms of thick dorbank horizons including massive polygonal peds and platy horizons. The polygonal peds are defined by desiccation cracks where vertical and horizontal laminations are hosted. Slaking tests as well as bulk chemistry confirmed that the laminations are composed largely of secondary calcite, however elemental mapping revealed numerous illite bands alternating with calcite layers. It is proposed that calcite layers represent solution features rather than cutanic features. Signs of hydromorphy are commonly observed within the dorbank horizons, since an arid climate currently prevails in Vaalputs such hydromorphic features may indicate formation under past climates. The occurrences of palygorskite, sepiolite and dorbank horizons in Vaalputs require high soil pH (generated by high concentrations of Na) for their formation. Vaalputs soils, however, measured circumneutral pH and relatively low Na concentrations which suggests that palygorskite, sepiolite and dorbank horizons are relic features. Salt casts of lenticular texture occur between polygonal peds of massive dorbank horizons and their enveloping vertical and horizontal laminations. Scanning Electron Microscope analyses indicate high concentrations of Mg, Al, Si and O which suggests sepiolite and palygorskite accumulation through a replacement of gypsum. Elemental maps in conjunction with x-ray tomography and bulk chemical analyses revealed that high concentrations of secondary barite occur along the contact surfaces between dorbank horizons and the laminations. The solution chemistry of all horizons show supersaturation with respect to barite suggesting that the Ba accumulation adjacent to the laminations is likely to have taken place at lower sulphate conditions than those present in the soils today. Evidence shows that Vaalputs soils have experienced at least one climate shift. The preserved soil mottles are indicative of soil environments that remain wet for an extended period. A fine textured platy dorbank horizon is an extensive feature in Vaalputs. The presence of this horizon indicates that the sediments were deposited from a low energy fluvial system. The large polygonal ped units in the lower dorbank units as well as the barite enrichments in pore spaces suggests a climate shift from wet to dry began after the sediments were deposited.AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vaalputs radioaktiewe afval fasiliteit is geleë in 'n ariede streek van Namakwaland met evapotranspirasie potensiaal wat neerslag tans ver oorskry. Dominante grond funksies in Vaalputs sluit in 'palimpsests‘ klimaat kondisies waaronder dit gevorm het. Deeltjies groottes wissel drasties tussen horisonne wat op verskillende vorme van sediment vervoer dui. Die oppervlak in Vaalputs word gedek deur 'n gelyke korrelagtige growwe sand van residuele eoliese oorsprong. Die oorgang vanaf die oppervlak horison na die ondergrondse horisonne word algemeen gekenmerk deur 'n spoelsteen grootte kliplyn. Die spoelsteen grootte materiaal van die kliplyn dui op residuele opbou gedurende die verwering van 'n voormalige oppervlak blootgestelde horison. Sedert afsetting van die ondergrondse sedimente (15 Mj) is pedogenetiese veranderinge reeds aktief in Vaalputs. Dit het gelei tot 'n komplekse grond stelsel wat verskillende vorme van dik dorbank horisonne insluitend massiewe veelhoekige pedons en plaatagtige horisonne vertoon. Die veelhoekige pedons word gedefinieer deur uitgedroogde krake waar die vertikale en horisontale lamellering aangetref word. Ontbindingstoetse sowel as heelrots chemiese analiese bevestig dat die lamellering grootliks bestaan uit 'n sekondêre kalsiet. Elementele kartering het egter talle illiet bande afgewissel met kalsiet lae openbaar. Daar word voorgestel dat kalsiet lae verteenwoordigend van oplossingskenmerke is eerder as kuntanise kenmerke. Tekens van hidromorfie word algemeen binne die dorbank horisonne waargeneem, aangesien droë klimaat tans in Vaalputs heers kan sulke hidromorfiese kenmerke dui op die vorming onder vorige klimate. Die groot voorkomste van paligorskiet, sepioliet en dorbank horisonne in Vaalputs vereis hoë grond pH (wat gegenereer word deur hoë konsentrasies van Na) vir hul vorming. Vaalputs grond het egter relatief neutrale pH gemeet en relatief lae Na konsentrasies wat daarop dui dat paligorskiet, sepioliet en dorbank horisonne oorblyfsel kenmerke is. Sout gietforme met lentikulare texture kom voor tussen veelhoekige pedons van massieve dorbank horisonne en hul omhullende vertikale en horisontale lamellerings. SEM analiese toon hoe konsentrasies Mg, Al, Si en O aan wat opbou van sepioliet en paligorskiet deur verplasing van gips voorstel. Petrografiese analiese het euhedraal geaardheid van primere veldspaat mineraal getoon binne die grond van Vaalputs. Dit stel 'n bron van sediment voor en minimale pedogenese in dorre klimaat waar euhedraal korrels veldspate bewaar bly. Elementele kartering tesame met x-straal tomografie en heelrots chemiese analiese het getoon dat hoe konsetrasies sekondere bariet langs die kontak oppervlakke tussen dorbank horisonne en lamellerings voorkom. Die oplossingschemie van alle horisonne toon superversadiging met betrekking tot bariet wat voorstel dat die opbou van Ba langs die lamellerings waarskynlik plaasgevind het by laer sulfaat kondisies eerder as die kondisies wat heedendaags in grond voorkom. Bewyse toon dat Vaalputs grond ten minste een klimaatsverandering ondergaan het. Die gepreserveerde grond vlekke is kenmerkend aan grond omgewings wat vogtig gebly het vir 'n geruime tyd. 'n Fyn getekstuurde plaatagtige dorbank horison is 'n uitgebreide verskynsel in Vaalputs. Die teenwoordiheid van hierdie dorbank toon aan dat sedimente vanuit 'n lae energie fluviale sisteem afgeset het. Die groot veelhoekige pedon eenhede in die laer dorbank eenhede sowel as die bariet verryking in porie spasies stel voor dat 'n klimaatsverandering vanaf vogtig na droog begin het nadat die sediment afgeset het