Characterization of smallholder farmers and agricultural credit institutions in Rwanda

The significance of access to agricultural credit in perpetuating agricultural productivity is unquestionable, because it is a means to achieving optimal productivity. The minimization of any barriers to agricultural credit access should, thus, be a global priority. One of the most significant and current barriers to agricultural credit access is information asymmetry which results into mutual distrust between lending institutions and  borrowers in this case the smallholder farmers. To address information asymmetry, both the lending institutions and borrowers need to have definitive descriptive information about either party. Without the profiling of institutions and potential borrowers, an information gap persists, thereby increasing mutual distrust. This study addresses that gap, in the context of Rwanda by characterizing smallholder farmers and agricultural credit institutions. A cross-sectional survey design was used in this study with smallholder farmers and staff in agricultural credit institutions in the Eastern, Western, and Central provinces of Rwanda as the units of analysis. A multistage sampling procedure was used, with stratified sampling of administrative levels spanning from province (stage 1) to districts (stage 2) and sectors (stage 3), followed by a simple random sampling of cells per sector, and the convenience sample of households. Staff in the financial institutions were purposively sampled. The data collected was analyzed using principal component analysis and cluster analysis with the K-means statistic (SPSS version 25). The largest cluster of smallholder farmers has the following characteristics:  household size of 1 to 5 people, farmers with education, owning arable land not exceeding a hectare, with more than five years of farming experience, earning from other off-farm activities, with no dependents under five years of age, and renting less than an acre of land. As for agricultural credit institutions, the largest cluster has following compositions: have mechanisms or measures established for managing loan defaults with the  majority using refinancing, rescheduling, and collateral release, with variable loan payback options, and provide targeted agricultural credit to farmers such as agricultural input premium. The research findings are particularly pertinent for maize- and rice-growing farmers, and how to reduce the information gap and the implications of broadening access to credit to smallholder farmers were discussed. This study emphasizes the need for characterization for both parties to be better informed about the characteristics and dynamics of each other, all in a bid to lessen asymmetric information and thus improve access to credit

Using farmer-prioritized vertisol management options for enhanced green gram and tomato production in central Kenya

Green gram (Phaseolus aures L.) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L) are widely grown in the vertisols of the Mwea Irrigation Scheme in Kenya alongside the rice fields. Green gram can fix nitrogen and is grown for its highly nutritious and curative seeds while tomato is grown for its fruit rich in fiber, minerals and vitamins. The two can be prepared individually or together in a variety of ways including raw salads and/or cooked/fried. They together form significant delicacies consumed with rice, which is the major cash crop grown in the black cotton soils. The crops can grow well in warm conditions but tomato is fairly adaptable except under excessive humidity and temperatures that reduce yields. Socio-economic prioritization by the farming community and on-farm demonstrations of soil management options were instituted to demonstrate enhanced green gram and tomato production in vertisol soils of lower parts of Kirinyaga County (Mwea East and Mwea West districts). Drainage management was recognized by the farming community as the best option although a reduced number of farmers used drainage and furrows/ridges, manure, fertilizer and shifting options in that descending order. Non-availability of labour and/or financial cost for instituting these management options were indicated as major hindrances to adoption of the yield enhancing options. Labour force was contributed to mainly by the family alongside hiring (64.2%) although 28% and 5.2%, respectively used hired or family labour alone. The female role in farming activities dominated while the male role was minimal especially at weeding. The youth role was insignificant and altogether absent at marketing. Despite the need for labour at earlier activities (especially when soil management options needed to be instituted) it was at the marketing stage that this force was directed. Soils were considered infertile by 60% but 40% indicated that their farms had adequate fertility. Analysis showed that with ridging, farm yard manure and fertilizer improved soil fertility, crop growth and income considerably. Phosphate and zinc enhancement reduced alkalinity and sodicity. Green gram and tomato yields increased under ridges and farm yard manure application by between 17-25% which significantly enhanced household incomes.Key words: Green gram, Tomato, Vertisol management, Household income, Mwea, Keny

Potential economic and poverty impact of improved chickpea technologies in Ethiopia. Socioeconomics Discussion Paper Series 9

The national agricultural research organization of Ethiopia in collaboration with the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) developed and released a total of 11 improved chickpea varieties between 1974 and 2005. These varieties are high-yielding, stress tolerant, with desirable agronomic and market traits. However, until now there exists no systematic study to assess the economic impact of this research investment in Ethiopia. This information is useful for justifying future donor investments and other collaborative ventures in such projects. The objective of this study is to assess the potential economic and poverty impact of improved chickpea varieties adopted by Ethiopian farmers. The economic surplus model (based on DREAM model) was applied to estimate total benefits. With an annual chickpea production of 175,734 tons, chickpea price of US$164/tonne, a 31$ 111 million for 30 years. Consumers are estimated to get 39% of the benefit and producers 61%.With project costs of US$ 22 million, the benefit cost ratio is estimated at 5:1 and an internal rate of return of 55%, indicating that the investment is profitable. Even with the worst-case scenario i.e. lowest benefit (15%), highest discount rate (13%), lowest elasticities and price the benefit-cost ratio of 2:1, still justified the investment. The generated benefit is expected to lift more than 0.7 million people (both producers and consumers) out of poverty. Thus, further investments in the chickpea and other legume research in Ethiopia is justified as a means of poverty alleviatio

Enhancement of Grassland Production Through Integration of Forage Legumes in Semi-Arid Rangelands of Kenya

Livestock production in semi-arid rangelands of Kenya is limited by the seasonal quantity and quality of fodder. Kirkman & Carvalho (2003) stated that these inter- and intra-seasonal quality and quantity fluctuations result in nutrient deficits that severely limit livestock production potential. The objective of this experiment was to study the effect of three forage legumes on the production of natural pastures in semi-arid rangelands of Kenya

Potential Economic and Poverty Impact of Improved Chickpea Technologies in Ethiopia

This study assessed the potential economic and poverty impact of 11 improved chickpea varieties released by the national agricultural research organization of Ethiopia in collaboration with the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. The economic surplus model applied estimated a total benefit of US$ 111 million for 30 years. Consumers are estimated to get 39% of the benefit and producers 61%. The benefit cost ratio was estimated at 5:1 and an internal rate of return of 55%, indicating that the investment is profitable. The generated benefit is expected to lift more than 0.7 million people (both producers and consumers) out of poverty. Thus, further investments in the chickpea and other legume research in Ethiopia is justified as a means of poverty alleviation

Patient safety in developing countries: retrospective estimation of scale and nature of harm to patients in hospital

OBJECTIVE: To assess the frequency and nature of adverse events to patients in selected hospitals in developing or transitional economies. DESIGN: Retrospective medical record review of hospital admissions during 2005 in eight countries. SETTING: Ministries of Health of Egypt, Jordan, Kenya, Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan, South Africa and Yemen; the World Health Organisation (WHO) Eastern Mediterranean and African Regions (EMRO and AFRO), and WHO Patient Safety. PARTICIPANTS: Convenience sample of 26 hospitals from which 15,548 patient records were randomly sampled. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Two stage screening. Initial screening based on 18 explicit criteria. Records that screened positive were then reviewed by a senior physician for determination of adverse event, its preventability, and the resulting disability. RESULTS: Of the 15,548 records reviewed, 8.2% showed at least one adverse event, with a range of 2.5% to 18.4% per country. Of these events, 83% were judged to be preventable, while about 30% were associated with death of the patient. About 34% adverse events were from therapeutic errors in relatively non-complex clinical situations. Inadequate training and supervision of clinical staff or the failure to follow policies or protocols contributed to most events. CONCLUSIONS: Unsafe patient care represents a serious and considerable danger to patients in the hospitals that were studied, and hence should be a high priority public health problem. Many other developing and transitional economies will probably share similar rates of harm and similar contributory factors. The convenience sampling of hospitals might limit the interpretation of results, but the identified adverse event rates show an estimate that should stimulate and facilitate the urgent institution of appropriate remedial action and also to trigger more research. Prevention of these adverse events will be complex and involves improving basic clinical processes and does not simply depend on the provision of more resources

Perceived risks of infection, hospitalization, and death from COVID-19 at the Equator: Ecuador and Kenya

Objectives: This study''s goal was to determine the perceived risks of infection as well as the perceived risks of hospitalization and death from COVID-19 in Ecuador and Kenya. It also assessed the factors associated with the risk-related perceptions. Methods: Cross-sectional studies with samples from the adult populations in both countries were conducted to assess the perceived risks of contracting COVID-19. Data were collected online using the Qualtrics platform from samples of 1, 050 heads of households ages 18 years or older in each country. Three statistical analyses were conducted: summary statistics, correlation, and linear regression. Results: The average perceived risks of COVID-19 infection, hospitalization, and death in the Kenyan sample were 27.1%, 43.2%, and 17.2%, respectively, and the values for the Ecuadorian sample were 34%, 32.8%, and 23.3%, respectively. The Pearson''s correlation coefficients between the risk measures in each country were less than 0.38. Risk measures were associated with several sociodemographic variables (e.g., income, gender, location) but not age. Conclusions: The perceived risks of COVID-19 infection, hospitalization, and death in Kenya and Ecuador were significantly higher relative to the statistics reported; however, no strong association existed between perceived risk and age, which is a key factor in adverse health outcomes, including death, among COVID-19 infected individuals

INCIDENCE, SEVERITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF YELLOW LEAF CURL DISEASE OF TOMATO IN KENYA

Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an important fruiting vegetable grown in Kenya because of its commercial and high nutritional value. Viruses are a major constraint to tomato production in tropics and sub tropics, eliciting symptoms like stunting, leaf mosaic, distortion, chlorosis, mottling, and vein clearing similar to those caused by abiotic factors. Although begomoviruses are known to cause tomato yellow leaf curl disease (TYLCD) in Kenya, there is limited knowledge on the disease status in tomato fields. The objective of this study was to determine the incidence and distribution of TYLCD in Kenya using the double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) technique. A survey was carried out in eight major tomato growing regions (259 fields) in Kenya during September to December, 2018. Presence of tomato yellow leaf curl virus was further confirmed using DAS\u2013ELISA. The disease was present across all the counties surveyed and its prevalence, incidences and severity varied across the counties and among the fields. The mean TYLCD prevalence ranged from 19.5% in Bungoma County, to 64% in Kwale County. There was significant difference (P<0.05) in disease incidences among the varieties sampled and the incidence was lower in plants grown from hybrids seed compared to conventional varieties. Mean disease severity was significant (P<0.05) and ranged from 0.18 to 2.20. Most farmers planted non-hybrid seeds. There is need for further determination of the diversity of begomoviruses infecting tomato using other techniques to provide more information towards breeding TYLCD-resistant tomato varieties.La tomate ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) est un important l\ue9gume-fruit cultiv\ue9 au Kenya en raison de sa valeur commercial et nutritionnelle \ue9lev\ue9e. Les virus sont une contrainte majeure \ue0 la production de tomates dans les r\ue9gions tropicales et subtropicales, provoquant des sympt\uf4mes tels que le rabougrissement, la mosa\uefque foliaire, la distorsion, la chlorose, la marbrure, le d\ue9gagement des veines similaires \ue0 ceux caus\ue9s par des facteurs abiotiques. Bien que les Begomovirus soient connus pour causer la maladie de l\u2019enroulement des feuilles jaunes de la tomate (TYLCD) au Kenya, les connaissances sur l\u2019\ue9tat de la maladie dans les champs de tomates sont limit\ue9es. L\u2019objectif de cette \ue9tude \ue9tait de d\ue9terminer l\u2019incidence et la distribution de TYLCD au Kenya en utilisant la technique de dosage immuno-enzymatique en sandwich \ue0 double anticorps (DAS-ELISA). Une enqu\ueate a \ue9t\ue9 men\ue9e dans huit grandes r\ue9gions productrices de tomates (259 champs) au Kenya de Septembre \ue0 D\ue9cembre 2018. La pr\ue9sence du virus de l\u2019enroulement des feuilles jaunes de la tomate a \ue9t\ue9 confirm\ue9e par DAS-ELISA. La maladie \ue9tait pr\ue9sente dans tous les comt\ue9s \ue9tudi\ue9s et sa pr\ue9valence, son incidence et sa gravit\ue9 variaient d\u2019un comt\ue9 \ue0 l\u2019autre et d\u2019une parcelle \ue0 l\u2019autre. La pr\ue9valence moyenne du TYLCD variait de 19,5 % dans le comt\ue9 de Bungoma \ue0 64 % dans le comt\ue9 de Kwale. Il y avait une diff\ue9rence significative (P<0,05) dans l\u2019incidence des maladies parmi les vari\ue9t\ue9s \ue9chantillonn\ue9es et l\u2019incidence \ue9tait plus faible chez les plantes cultiv\ue9es \ue0 partir de semences hybrides par rapport aux vari\ue9t\ue9s conventionnelles. La gravit\ue9 moyenne de la maladie \ue9tait statistiquement significative (P<0,05) et variait de 0,18 \ue0 2,20. La plupart des agriculteurs ont plant\ue9 des semences non hybrides. Il est n\ue9cessaire de d\ue9terminer davantage la diversit\ue9 des Begomovirus infectant la tomate en utilisant d\u2019autres techniques pour fournir plus d\u2019informations sur la s\ue9lection de vari\ue9t\ue9s de tomates r\ue9sistantes au TYLCD

CULTURAL MANAGEMENT OF RUSSIAN WHEAT APHID INFESTATION OF BREAD WHEAT VARIETIES IN KENYA

Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) is ecologically suited to East African countries and is the second important cereal after maize in Kenya. It is an important source of food, livestock feeds and income. However, its production (442,000 MT) does not meet annual domestic demand (1,750,000 MT), due to cereal aphids infestation. The most serious cereal aphid in Kenya is the Russian wheat aphid (RWA) ( Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov), causing yield losses of >90% when not controlled. The objective of this study was to develop low cost cultural, sustainable and environmentally safe practices for the management of the RWA in East Africa. Treatments included nine varieties, three seeding rates and three rates of nitrogen application. Nine commercial wheat varieties, K. Tai, K. Kingbird, K Wren, K. Korongo, K. Hawk, K. Sunbird, Robin, K. Eagle, and NBWII were sown. Main plots were assigned to wheat varieties, sown at three seeding rates 75, 100 and 125 kg ha-1. Sub-plots were assigned to three rates of nitrogen, 75, 100 and 130 kg N ha-1, applied at tillering stage (GS 22). Variety K. Korongo supported the lowest aphid count of 3.6 per 5 plants; followed by K. Hawk (3.8) and Robin (2.9 aphids). Robin gave the highest grain yield (2.9 t ha-1), followed by K. Korongo (2.7 t ha-1) and K. Hawk (2.5 t ha-1). Application of 100 kg N ha-1 and seeding at 100 kg ha-1 were the best rates.Le bl\ue9 ( Triticum aestivum L.) convient \ue9cologiquement aux pays de l\u2019Afrique de l\u2019est et est la deuxi\ue8me c\ue9r\ue9ale importante apr\ue8s le ma\uefs au Kenya. C\u2019est une source importante de nourriture, nourritures de b\ue9tail et revenu. Pourtant, sa production (442,000 MT) ne satisfait pas de demande domestique annuelle (1,750,000 MT), en raison de l\u2019infestation de pucerons de c\ue9r\ue9ale. Le puceron de c\ue9r\ue9ale le plus s\ue9rieux au Kenya est le puceron de bl\ue9 russe (RWA) ( Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov), en provoquant des pertes de production de> 90 % sinon contr\uf4l\ue9s. L\u2019objectif de cette \ue9tude \ue9tait de d\ue9velopper bas le prix les pratiques culturelles, durables et environnementalement s\ufbres pour l\u2019administration du RWA \ue0 Afrique de l\u2019est. Les traitements ont inclus neuf vari\ue9t\ue9s, trois taux seeding et trois taux d\u2019application d\u2019azote. Neuf vari\ue9t\ue9s de bl\ue9 commerciales, K. Tai, K. Kingbird, K le Troglodyte, K. Korongo, K. Faucon, K. Sunbird, Robin, K. L\u2019aigle et NBWII ont \ue9t\ue9 sem\ue9s. Les complots principaux ont \ue9t\ue9 allou\ue9s aux vari\ue9t\ue9s de bl\ue9, sem\ue9es \ue0 trois taux seeding 75, 100 et \ue0 125 kg ha 1. Les sous-complots ont \ue9t\ue9 allou\ue9s \ue0 trois taux d\u2019azote, 75, 100 et de 130 kg N ha-1, appliqu\ue9 au stade tillering (GS 22). Vari\ue9t\ue9 K. Korongo a soutenu le compte de puceron le plus bas de 3.6 par 5 usines; suivi par K. Le faucon (3.8) et Robin (2.9 pucerons). Robin a donn\ue9 la plus haute production de grain (2.9 t ha-1), suivi par K. Korongo (2.7 t ha-1) et K. Le faucon (2.5 t ha-1). L\u2019application de 100 kg N ha-1 et de seeding \ue0 100 kg ha-1 \ue9tait les meilleurs taux

Distribution and molecular diversity of whitefly species colonizing cassava in Kenya

Open Access Journal; Published online: 27 Sep 2021The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadium, Hemiptera) has been reported to transmit viruses that cause cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Currently, there is limited information on the distribution, species and haplotype composition of the whitefly populations colonizing cassava in Kenya. A study was conducted in the major cassava growing regions of Kenya to address this gap. Analyses of mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase 1 (mtCO1) sequences revealed the presence of four distinct whitefly species: Bemisia tabaci, Bemisia afer, Aleurodicus dispersus and Paraleyrodes bondari in Kenya. The B. tabaci haplotypes were further resolved into SSA1, SSA2 and Indian Ocean (IO) putative species. The SSA1 population had three haplogroups of SSA1-SG1, SSA-SG2 and SSA1-SG3. Application of KASP genotyping grouped the Bemisia tabaci into two haplogroups namely sub-Saharan Africa East and Southern Africa (SSA-ESA) and sub-Saharan Africa East and Central Africa (SSA-ECA). The study presents the first report of P. bondari (Bondar’s nesting whitefly) on cassava in Kenya. Bemisia tabaci was widely distributed in all the major cassava growing regions in Kenya. The increased detection of different whitefly species on cassava and genetically diverse B. tabaci mitotypes indicates a significant influence on the dynamics of cassava virus epidemics in the field. The study highlights the need for continuous monitoring of invasive whitefly species population on cassava for timely application of management practices to reduce the impact of cassava viral diseases and prevent potential yield losses