CONSTRAINTS TO CROP PRODUCTION AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES OF SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN SEMI-ARID CENTRAL AND WESTERN ZIMBABWE

Smallholder farmer agricultural productivity in developing countries is limited by diverse biotic and abiotic constraints. They have, however, developed adaptive strategies to cope with some of these constraints, thereby strengthening their resilience to various stresses. The objective of this study was to establish crop production constraints faced by smallholder farmers in semi-arid Lower Gweru and Lupane areas of Zimbabwe, as well as coping and adaptation strategies used. Focus group discussions and structured interviews were used to collect data. High rainfall variability (CV = 0.30) had the highest ranking (most important), followed by shortage of inputs collectively, from focus group discussions. Farmers adapted to rainfall variability mostly through choice of crop and planting dates, adjusting the levels of inputs (fertiliser in particular) they used, as well as by resorting to cropping in areas with a high water table. Sixty percent of the farmers in both communal areas experienced shortage of planting seed, while shortage of fertiliser was reported by 75 and 30% of the farmers in Lower Gweru and Lupane, respectively. Labour was a major constraint to 65 and 20% of the farmers in both locations, respectively; while draft power shortage affected 50 and 25% of the farmers. About 50% of the farmers in Lupane reported the problem of crop damage by elephants. The HIV and AIDs pandemic and poor soils were also reported during focus group discussions. Farmers coped with input shortages by hiring and sharing resources. They reduced damage from elephants by harvesting their crops early. The effect of HIV/AIDs weakened the labour force and some communities in the study areas helped affected families by working in their fields.La productivit\ue9 agricole des petits paysans dans les pays en d\ue9veloppement est limit\ue9\ue9 par de diverses contraintes biotiques et abiotiques. Ils ont, cependant d\ue9velopp\ue9 des strategies adaptatives pour faire face \ue0 ces contraintes, consolidant ainsi leur resilience aux divers stress. L\u2019objectif de cette \ue9tude \ue9tait d\u2019\ue9tablir les contraintes de la production agricole auxquelles font face les petits paysans dans les basses regions semi-arides de Gweru et Lupane au Zimbaw\ue9, ainsi que les strategies d\u2019adaptation utilis\ue9es. Des discussions de groupes et des entretiens structur\ue9s ont \ue9t\ue9 utlis\ue9s pour la collecte des donn\ue9es. La grande variabilit\ue9 de pluies (CV = 0, 30) a re\ue7u le rang le plus \ue9lev\ue9 (le plus important); suivie de la p\ue9nurie g\ue9n\ue9rale d\u2019intrants, selon les discussions de groupes. Les paysans se sont adapt\ue9s aux variabilit\ue9es de pluies \ue0 travers le choix des cultures et des dates de semis, en ajustant les niveaux d\u2019intrants (engrais en particulier) qu\u2019ils utilisaient, ainsi qu\u2019en se recourant aux espaces de production avec une nappe phr\ue9atique affleurant la surface du sol. Soixante pourcent des paysans dans les deux zones communales rencontraient la p\ue9nurie des semences, alors que la penurie en engrais \ue9tait rapport\ue9e par 75 et 30% des paysans de la basse Gweru et Lupane, respectivement. La main d\u2019oeuvre a \ue9t\ue9 une contrainte majeure pour 65 et 20% des paysans dans les deux regions, respectivement; tandis que le manque de traction animale a affect\ue9 50 et 25% de producteurs. Environ 50% de producteurs au Lupane ont rapport\ue9 le probl\ue8me de destruction des plantes par les \ue9l\ue9phants. La pendemie du VIH/SIDA et la pauvret\ue9 des sols ont aussi \ue9t\ue9 rapport\ue9es pendant les discussions de groupes. Les producteurs se sont adapt\ue9s au manque d\u2019intrants en loyant et en partageant leurs ressources. Ils ont r\ue9duit les dommages caus\ue9s par les \ue9l\ue9phants en r\ue9coltant de fa\ue7on pr\ue9coce leur cultures. Les effets du VIH/SIDA ont affaibli la force de la main d\u2019oeuvre et certaines commaut\ue9s dans les milieux d\u2019\ue9tude ont aid\ue9 les familles affect\ue9es en travaillant dans leurs champs

Climate variability and change or multiple stressors? Farmer perceptions regarding threats to livelihoods in Zimbabwe and Zambia

Climate variability is set to increase, characterised by extreme conditions in Africa. Southern Africa will likely get drier and experience more extreme weather conditions, particularly droughts and floods. However, while climate risks are acknowledged to be a serious threat to smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, these risks do not exist in isolation, but rather, compound a multiplicity of stressors. It was important for this study to understand farmer perceptions regarding the role of climate risks within a complex and multifarious set of risks to farmers’ livelihoods. This study used both qualitative and quantitative methods to investigate farmers’ perceptions regarding threats to livelihoods in southern Zambia and south-western Zimbabwe. While farmers report changes in local climatic conditions consistent with climate variability, there is a problem in assigning contribution of climate variability and other factors to observed negative impacts on the agricultural and socio-economic system. Furthermore, while there is a multiplicity of stressors that confront farmers, climate variability remains the most critical and exacerbate livelihood insecurity for those farmers with higher levels of vulnerability to these stressor

The implications of rural perceptions of water scarcity on differential adaptation behaviour in Rajasthan, India

Water scarcity is one of the most critical issues facing agriculture today. To understand how people manage the risk of water scarcity and growing pressures of increased climate variability, exploring perceptions of risk and how these perceptions feed into response behaviour and willingness to adapt is critical. This paper revisits existing frameworks that conceptualise perceptions of environmental risk and decision-making, and uses empirical evidence from an in-depth study conducted in Rajasthan, India, to emphasise how individual and collective memories, and experience of past extreme events shape current definitions and future expectations of climatic risks. In doing so, we demonstrate the value of recognising the role of local perceptions of water scarcity (and how they vary between and within households) in constructing social vulnerability. We also discuss the implications of these perceptions of risk when understanding and incentivising local adaptation pathways

Engaging smallholder farmers with seasonal climate forecasts for sustainable crop production in semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe

Small holder farmers in the semi-arid areas have not been able to utilize seasonal climate forecasts in making crop management decisions due to limited exposure as well as failure to interpret it. Three participatory meetings were held with farmers in Lower Gweru and Lupane Districts of Zimbabwe soon after the release of the 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 seasonal climate forecast in September of each season. This was done to solicit for farmers’ prediction of the coming rainy season and come up with field test crop management practices. Farmers have their sets of indicators that they rely on to forecast seasonal rainfall which are based on generations of past experience that include environmental, biological, and traditional beliefs. There is however, need to investigate how their indicators compare with the scientific forecast in making farming decisions. Farmers claimed that the rains were starting later and finishing earlier whilst analysis of the rainfall record showed that starting rains have been later by 5 to 10 days in the last five years. There was an increase in the number of dry spells in the rainy season in the last five years compared to the period 1980 to 2008. Adding recommended amounts of fertilizers resulted in yield increases of 40% compared to adding half the recommended amounts. Growing long season varieties resulted in higher yields (22%) than growing short season varieties in the 2009/2010 wetter season while growing of shorter season variety had yield advantage (36%) over the long season variety in the 2009/2010 which was relatively dry. Frequent weeding resulted in about 8% increase in maize yields compared to weeding once in a season. The study demonstrates that knowledge of the coming season assists smallholder farmers in coming up with adaptive strategies for climate variability and change

Constraints to crop production and adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers in semi-arid Central and Western Zimbabwe.

Smallholder farmer agricultural productivity in developing countries is limited by diverse biotic and abiotic constraints. They have, however, developed adaptive strategies to cope with some of these constraints, thereby strengthening their resilience to various stresses. The objective of this study was to establish crop production constraints faced by smallholder farmers in semi-arid Lower Gweru and Lupane areas of Zimbabwe, as well as coping and adaptation strategies used. Focus group discussions and structured interviews were used to collect data. High rainfall variability (CV = 0.30) had the highest ranking (most important), followed by shortage of inputs collectively, from focus group discussions. Farmers adapted to rainfall variability mostly through choice of crop and planting dates, adjusting the levels of inputs (fertiliser in particular) they used, as well as by resorting to cropping in areas with a high water table. Sixty percent of the farmers in both communal areas experienced shortage of planting seed, while shortage of fertiliser was reported by 75 and 30% of the farmers in Lower Gweru and Lupane, respectively. Labour was a major constraint to 65 and 20% of the farmers in both locations, respectively; while draft power shortage affected 50 and 25% of the farmers. About 50% of the farmers in Lupane reported the problem of crop damage by elephants. The HIV and AIDs pandemic and poor soils were also reported during focus group discussions. Farmers coped with input shortages by hiring and sharing resources. They reduced damage from elephants by harvesting their crops early. The effect of HIV/AIDs weakened the labour force and some communities in the study areas helped affected families by working in their field

Use of Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Scientific Methods for Climate Forecasting in Southern Zambia and North Western Zimbabwe.

The semi-arid areas of Southern Africa receive low and erratic rainfall which varies in both seasons and from year to year resulting in food insecurity. Few of the smallholder farmers have access to seasonal climate forecasts from the meteorological department hence they depend mostly on their indigenous knowledge systems for forecasting seasons which they make use of to develop crop management adaptive strategies. The study shows that farmers have several indicators for weather forecasting and some of these are similar in both Zambia and Zimbabwe. Some of these indicators include; floods or excessive rains in the preceding season, strong winds around October, an extended cold season that goes up to August and sometimes September and abundance or scarcity of certain fruits. The indicators conflict in some seasons and in such cases the farmers resort to using those that they know to have stronger signals from their reliability factors. Positive relationship between indigenous knowledge systems and modern science were observed between the 2008/9 season and 2009/10 which confirms that indigenous knowledge systems, when fully developed could be very helpful in seasonal forecasting. The study recommends the importance of the restoration of the confidence of the indigenous people in their traditional knowledge and skills of weather forecasting

Building adaptive capacity to cope with increasing vulnerability due to climate change

The project objective was to develop educational curricula and research and extension competencies of present and future scientists to better assist farmers identify technology options that enhance their adaptive capacity to cope with risks and opportunities associated with climate change and variability. Research conducted by five PhD itwo women) and four MPhils (one woman) students contributed to project outputs. Baselme data to describe cropping system and management tinder current climate variability and farmer perceptions about climate change across 4 districts of Zimbabwe and Zambia was collected and analysed. Indigenous knowledge of climate and indicators to seasonal conditions were also documented and compared with scientific forecasts. Seven workshops were held to educate farmers and extension agents on interpretation of the Seasonal Climate Forecast (SCF) and explore together its application in making cropping decisions. Management options in response to the SCF were then tested in participatory on-farm trials. Most smallholder farmers (at 3 of the 4 sites) were not aware of the existence of the SCF. However, in both seasons the farmers' prediction of seasonal climate was consistent with that from the meteorological department. Engaging smallholder farmers with SCF assists them in making investment decisions on crop management options and in particular. on-fann trial results showed that fanners could derive reliable and substantial benefit from the SCF us decisions related to fertility input levels. The project demonstrated that fainter uptake and use of SC F benefits from an extended participatory approach that provides timely access and interpretation of the SC F. experimentation, monitoring and a post mortem of results which enhances farmer ownerslup and adoption after the project