Knowledge uptake by technical professionals and decision-makers for developmental water services Part 1: Methodology, knowledge and context

While significant knowledge appears to be available on developmental water services (a term for service provision, to meet developmental objectives, with an emphasis on poor communities, in which a range of factors other than purely technical factors are addressed), there appears to be insufficient uptake of this knowledge (meaning the acquisition, comprehension and application in context) by technical professionals and decision-makers responsible for service provision, as evidencedby persistent service delivery backlogs and poor sustainability. This investigation developed and documented an exploratory methodology based primarily on in-depth interviews and a literature review which enabled the collection of evidence and development of a ‘first pass’ typology of knowledge, context and individual competencies with respect to developmental water services. This paper addresses the aspects of knowledge and context. Individual competencies are addressed in thecompanion paper (Part 2). With respect to knowledge, the investigation found that while there is a lot of information readily available in the sectoron the provision of water services to meet developmental objectives, what appears to be weak or missing is information on how to apply this information in context. With respect to context, the investigation established a simple preliminary framework which described the combination of political and technical disciplines in a unified approach, and the translation of this into the bureaucracy. On the evidence of the in-depth interviews, the contextual aspects of developmental water services, described by the above framework – and, in particular, the workings of the bureaucracy – would appear to constitute the major challenge facing high-level technical professionals and decision-makers in the provision and sustainability of water services. More generally, the investigation established that for effective provision of water services within a developmental context, there is a close relationship between the three components of knowledge, context and individual competencies; andthat it is difficult to address any one of the three components without reference to the other two

Sustainable and equitable sanitation in informal settlements of Cape Town: a common vision?

Sustainability and equity are two desirable but ambiguous concepts often used to describe goals for sanitation services internationally and in South Africa. Both concepts are mentioned repeatedly in policy documents and government reports. There is, however, a gap between policy and implementation, and part of the problem lies in the challenge of reconciling the pressure to deliver immediate results with a long-term vision to strive towards sustainable and equitable sanitation services. Perspectives, priorities, and barriers to sustainability and equity in implementation, recognised amongst water and sanitation sector stakeholders in Cape Town, were analysed and compared with policy documents and municipal records. The research methods included a review of municipal and national sanitation policy documents and reports, and unstructured interviews with municipal officials, development NGO workers, sanitation consultants and entrepreneurs working in Cape Town municipality. In this paper, challenges to integrating sustainability and equity principles into various stages of sanitation service development are highlighted, and preliminary recommendations for addressing challenges are made, with an emphasis on stakeholder participation.Keywords: urban sanitation, sustainability, equity, South Afric

Assessing the impact of modern recharge on a sandstone aquifer beneath a suburb of Doncaster, UK

A major water quality issue in urban areas underlain by a productive aquifer is the impact of modern recharge. Using a variety of sample sources including multi-level boreholes, detectable concentrations of CFCs and SF6 have been found throughout the upper 50 m of the saturated aquifer beneath a suburb of Doncaster, UK, indicating that modern (<50-year old) recharge has penetrated to at least this depth. Additional support for this deep penetration is provided by the detection of sulphite-reducing clostridia and faecal streptococci. Despite the upper aquifer being a poorly cemented sandstone, the residence time indicators suggest that some modern recharge is travelling via fracture systems in addition to that moving down by simple piston flow. However, the overall impact of 80 years of steady urbanisation on water quality in the aquifer beneath this suburb has in general been limited. This is attributed to a combination of factors including previous land use, dilution by direct recharge of rainfall through green-space areas including gardens, and locally high storage in the friable upper aquifer

Pit Latrines and Their Impacts on Groundwater Quality: A Systematic Review

Background: Pit latrines are one of the most common human excreta disposal systems in low-income countries, and their use is on the rise as countries aim to meet the sanitation-related target of the Millennium Development Goals. There is concern, however, that discharges of chemical and microbial contaminants from pit latrines to groundwater may negatively affect human health. Objectives: Our goals were to a) calculate global pit latrine coverage, b) systematically review empirical studies of the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality, c) evaluate latrine siting standards, and d) identify knowledge gaps regarding the potential for and consequences of groundwater contamination by latrines. Methods: We used existing survey and population data to calculate global pit latrine coverage. We reviewed the scientific literature on the occurrence of contaminants originating from pit latrines and considered the factors affecting transport of these contaminants. Data were extracted from peer-reviewed articles, books, and reports identified using Web of Science(SM), PubMed, Google, and document reference lists. Discussion: We estimated that approximately 1.77 billion people use pit latrines as their primary means of sanitation. Studies of pit latrines and groundwater are limited and have generally focused on only a few indicator contaminants. Although groundwater contamination is frequently observed downstream of latrines, contaminant transport distances, recommendations based on empirical studies, and siting guidelines are variable and not well aligned with one another. Conclusions: In order to improve environmental and human health, future research should examine a larger set of contextual variables, improve measurement approaches, and develop better criteria for siting pit latrines

Hydrogeochemistry and microbial contamination of groundwater from Lower Ponnaiyar Basin, Cuddalore District, Tamil Nadu, India

Groundwater is the major source of fresh water in regions where there is inadequate surface water resources. Forty-seven groundwater samples were collected from Lower Ponnaiyar basin, Cuddalore District, south India, during the premonsoon (PRM) and postmonsoon (POM) seasons of 2005. Out of 47 groundwater samples, 15 samples showing higher nitrate concentration were those collected during PRM 2005. Microbial analysis of these samples was carried out by employing 16S rRNA gene sequence tool. Detailed analysis was conducted to determine the hydrogeochemical processes and microbial contamination responsible for deterioration of quality. The abundance of the ions during PRM and POM are in the following order: Na > Ca > Mg > K = Cl > HCO3 > SO4 > CO3. The dominant water types in PRM are in the order of Na > Ca > Mg > K = Cl > mixed CaNaHCO3, whereas during POM NaCl > CaMgCl > mixed CaNaHCO3, and CaHCO3. However, NaCl and CaMgCl are major water types in the study area.The quality of groundwater in the study area is mainly impaired by surface contamination sources, mineral dissolution, ion exchange and evaporation. Groundwater chemistry was used to assess quality to ensure its suitability for drinking and irrigation, based on BIS and WHO standards. Suitability for irrigation was determined on the basis of the diagram of US Salinity Laboratory (USSL), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), and Na%. According to SAR and USSL classification, 27.66% (PRM) and 40.43% (POM) of samples fall under C3S2 category, indicating high salinity and medium sodium hazard, which restrict its suitability for irrigation. Microbiological analysis and its effects on the water quality were also addressed. The 16S rRNA gene sequences of 11 bacterial contaminants exhibited five groups with 11 operational taxonomic units with aerobic and facultatively anaerobic organisms. The presence of aerobic organisms in the groundwater samples reflects the active conversion of ammonia to nitrite by Nitrosomonas sp. which is further converted to nitrates by v other organisms. Further the presence of nitrate reducers could also play a role in the process of conversion of nitrate to ammonia and nitrate to molecular nitrogen