Ancient Urban Ecology Reconstructed from Archaeozoological Remains of Small Mammals in the Near East

Acknowledgments We especially thank the many archaeologists who collaborated closely with our project and invested pioneering efforts in intensive fine-scale retrieval of the archaeozoological samples that provided the basis for this study: Shai Bar, Amnon Ben-Tor, Amit Dagan, Yosef Garfinkel, Ayelet Gilboa, Zvi Greenhut, Amihai Mazar, Stefan Munger, Ronny Reich, Itzhaq Shai, Ilan Sharon, Joe Uziel, Sharon Zuckerman, and additional key excavation personnel who were instrumental in collection of the samples or in assisting the work including: Shimrit Bechar, Jacob Dunn, Norma Franklin, Egon Lass and Yiftah Shalev. Funding:The research was funded by a post-doctoral grant awarded to L.W. from the European Research Council under the European Community’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007e2013)/ERC grant agreement number 229418. The laboratory work was also supported by funding by the Israel Science Foundation (Grant 52/10). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.Peer reviewedPublisher PD

Genetic diversity and infection sources of Rosellinia necatrix in northern Israel

Symptoms of white root rot (caused by Rosellinia necatrix) of fruit trees (including apple, cherry and peach) are rotting of the roots and yellowing of the leaves, followed by wilting and death. Undecomposed organic material in forest soils is favourable for growth of R. necatrix. Genetic tools and mycelial compatibility assays can be used to group the fungus into genetically similar groups. This study identified and located the sources of root infection, using broad surveys of infested plots in various locations, and assessed infection probability as a function of distance from potential inoculum source. Fifty-five infested plots in 14 settlements at different altitudes were surveyed. About 60% of the infested plots, at altitudes up to 540 m above sea level, were located near Mediterranean oak maquis forests, and the infections spread inward from the edges of the fruit orchards. These results indicated four possible sources of infection: (i) Mediterranean maquis forest near agricultural lands; (ii) soil transferred to low-lying sections within orchards; (iii) infection source carried by farmers from plots on the same farm; and (iv) infections via roots of adjacent trees within orchards. No correlation was found between genetic variation and virulence, but isolates that grew quickly on potato dextrose agar plates at 28oC were more virulent than slow growing isolates

Proposed mechanism for increased reproductive potential of wild boars under hunting pressure

Throughout Europe and Asia, populations of wild boars (Sus scrofa) demonstrate a steady increase in recent decades. This results in increased conflicts between wild boars and humans, intensifying economic costs like epidemics to livestock and humans, damages to gardens in urban areas and agricultural crops. Culling wild boars is the most widespread management tool throughout the world in attempts to minimize these conflicts. Yet, studies demonstrate that populations of wild boars exposed to high hunting pressure have shorter generation times associated with higher reproduction rates. The mechanisms of this phenomenon have not been examined to date, thus favoring the culling practice to go undisturbed. Our research goal is to evaluate the effects of hunting on wild boars population structure, dynamics, behavior and reproduction in four different land uses: urban with and without hunting, non urban (agriculture and nature reserves) with and without hunting. To do so, we are using motion triggered cameras (monitoring vigilance behavior), giving up densities (GUDs) experiments and analysis of stress and reproduction hormones levels in hair. Our results, so far, show striking behavioral differences between boars in urban and open spaces regardless of hunting pressure based on GUD studies and analysis of videos. These experiments suggest a lower perceived risk of humans in urban areas, where boars consumed all the food provided in the GUD studies, and thus putatively affecting the reproduction potential of boars in human vicinity. Furthermore, we found that hunting in non-urbanized lands decreases the dispersal of the yearlings. These herds also showed a high level of vigilance compared to the urban herds. We suggest that the combination of vigilance and low dispersal rates may lead to increased reproductive potential.peerReviewe

The Use of Drones to Determine Rodent Location and Damage in Agricultural Crops

Rodent pests cause extensive damage to agricultural crops worldwide. Farmers’ ability to monitor rodent activity and damage within crops is limited due to their inability to simultaneously survey vast agricultural areas for rodent activity, the inability to enter certain fields, and the difficulty of monitoring rodent numbers, as well as using traps due to trap shyness and high labor costs. Drones can potentially be used to monitor rodent numbers and damage because they can cover large areas quickly without damaging crops and carry sensors that provide high-resolution imagery. Here, we investigated whether rodent activity (Levant voles Microtus guentheri and house mice Mus musculus) is related to vegetation health and biomass in Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) fields. We used a drone to photograph one hundred and twenty 10 × 10 m plots in nine fields and calculate the plots’ normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and biomass. On each plot, we also trapped rodents, counted rodent burrows, and evaluated the harvested dry crop yield. The number of burrows was positively related to the number of Levant voles trapped (F1,110 = 12.08, p < 0.01) and negatively related to the number of house mice trapped (F1,110 = 5.23, p < 0.05). Biomass extracted from drone images was positively related to the yield harvested by hand (F1,83 = 3.81, p < 0.05). Farmers, therefore, can use burrow counting in place of trapping Levant voles, and biomass estimates from drones can be used in place of manual yield calculations. NDVI (F1,95 = 73.14, p < 0.001) and biomass (F1,95 = 79.58, p < 0.001) were negatively related to the number of Levant voles trapped, and the number of burrows were not related to the number of house mice trapped. We demonstrate that drones can be used to assist farmers in determining the Levant vole presence and damage within crop fields to control rodents using precision agriculture methods, such as adding rodenticides in specific areas, thus increasing efficiency and decreasing the amount of pesticides used

Importance of Mesohabitat for Nest-Site Selection in Breeding Eagle Owls (Bubo bubo): A Multi-Scale Model

Apex predators make excellent bioindicators of habitat quality and anthropogenic changes. Eagle owls (Bubo bubo) are such apex and keystone predators, who show preferential nest-site selection, usually away from human activities and habitation. However, Israel is a small country with a burgeoning human population. Hence, in order to understand the habitat requirements of eagle owls in central Israel, we conducted a multi-scale model analysis on their existing nest sites between 2006 and 2010. We identified 203 successful breeding attempts at 73 different sites. Our data suggested that the breeding population of the eagle owls was limited by the availability of quality nest locations, i.e., quarries, and caves. The probability of an eagle pair breeding increased with the presence of both quarries and caves, but was not related to mesohabitat properties. In addition, eagle owl breeding densities were positively related to the number of nest localities and to the planted woodlands. Furthermore, we found that eagle owls successfully raised their young regardless of the surrounding mesohabitat and sought the presence of other potential nest sites in the vicinity of the active nest sites, most likely due to the owls’ opportunistic and generalist hunting behavior, which facilitated the consumption of a wide prey base. Appropriate nest sites (quarries and caves) appeared to increase population numbers and, therefore, should be protected Further studies should determine whether increasing artificial nest sites and reclaiming abandoned quarries could increase eagle owl numbers in a sustainable manner

The Use of Drones to Determine Rodent Location and Damage in Agricultural Crops

Rodent pests cause extensive damage to agricultural crops worldwide. Farmers’ ability to monitor rodent activity and damage within crops is limited due to their inability to simultaneously survey vast agricultural areas for rodent activity, the inability to enter certain fields, and the difficulty of monitoring rodent numbers, as well as using traps due to trap shyness and high labor costs. Drones can potentially be used to monitor rodent numbers and damage because they can cover large areas quickly without damaging crops and carry sensors that provide high-resolution imagery. Here, we investigated whether rodent activity (Levant voles Microtus guentheri and house mice Mus musculus) is related to vegetation health and biomass in Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) fields. We used a drone to photograph one hundred and twenty 10 × 10 m plots in nine fields and calculate the plots’ normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and biomass. On each plot, we also trapped rodents, counted rodent burrows, and evaluated the harvested dry crop yield. The number of burrows was positively related to the number of Levant voles trapped (F1,110 = 12.08, p 1,110 = 5.23, p 1,83 = 3.81, p 1,95 = 73.14, p 1,95 = 79.58, p < 0.001) were negatively related to the number of Levant voles trapped, and the number of burrows were not related to the number of house mice trapped. We demonstrate that drones can be used to assist farmers in determining the Levant vole presence and damage within crop fields to control rodents using precision agriculture methods, such as adding rodenticides in specific areas, thus increasing efficiency and decreasing the amount of pesticides used

Genetic diversity and infection sources of <em>Rosellinia necatrix</em> in northern Israel

Symptoms of white root rot (caused by Rosellinia necatrix) of fruit trees (including apple, cherry and peach) are rotting of the roots and yellowing of the leaves, followed by wilting and death. Undecomposed organic material in forest soils is favourable for growth of R. necatrix. Genetic tools and mycelial compatibility assays can be used to group the fungus into genetically similar groups. This study identified and located the sources of root infection, using broad surveys of infested plots in various locations, and assessed infection probability as a function of distance from potential inoculum source. Fifty-five infested plots in 14 settlements at different altitudes were surveyed. About 60% of the infested plots, at altitudes up to 540 m above sea level, were located near Mediterranean oak maquis forests, and the infections spread inward from the edges of the fruit orchards. These results indicated four possible sources of infection: (i) Mediterranean maquis forest near agricultural lands; (ii) soil transferred to low-lying sections within orchards; (iii) infection source carried by farmers from plots on the same farm; and (iv) infections via roots of adjacent trees within orchards. No correlation was found between genetic variation and virulence, but isolates that grew quickly on potato dextrose agar plates at 28oC were more virulent than slow growing isolates

The influence of fire history, plant species and post-fire management on soil water repellency in a Mediterranean catchment: the Mount Carmel range, Israel

Fire is a key factor impacting soil hydrology in manyMediterranean catchments. Soilwater repellency (SWR) can stimulate land degradation processes by reducing the affinity of soil and water thereby triggering a reduction in soil fertility and increasing soil and water losses. The effects of two consequent fires (1989 and 2005) on SWR were assessed in the Carmel Mountains, Israel. Fire history, plant recovery and post-fire management (14 treatments)were investigated as determining factors in a time dependent system. In total 210 locationswere investigated 9 times fromOctober 2011 to February 2012,which totals 1890water drop penetration tests thatwere performed. During each visit to the field (9 times) a soilmoisture contentwas measured for each treatment. SWR was highest in the N50 years unburnt plots, where soil under Pinus halepensis is most hydrophobic. In the most disturbed soils (twice burnt), many sites have a low to absent SWR even if the soil is very dry. The dynamics and fluctuations in SWR differ in magnitude under different plant species. The areas treated with CC (chipping of charred trees) showed a much higher SWR than areas left untreated. From these insights, a conceptual model of the reaction of SWR on multiple fires was developed

Rarefaction analysis of urban and rural assemblages.

<p>Data used for this analysis excludes taxa that are rare in the urban assemblages and indicate abandonment/intrusion (<i>Meriones</i>, <i>Microtus</i>, <i>Spalax</i>, <i>Gerbillus</i>). NISP is the number of identified specimens.</p