Factors influencing farmer-to-farmer extension of forage legume technology

Forage legumes have been introduced to farmers in Central Kenya between 1980 and 2002 through various Institutional and Projects’ efforts. The adoption rate of these forages among farmers has been found to be rather low, with the NDDP reporting only 1.9 % of farms surveyed and an ICRAF report indicating that the technology was only reaching 1 % of smallholder farms. An evaluation of adoption of Calliandra and Desmodium was conducted to identify farm characteristics affecting the likelihood of sharing of Desmodium and Calliandra technologies as well as to characterise the spread or diffusion of the technology from the original contact groups and the effect of distance from those groups. Three groups of farmers were approached. A first generation who received planting material from the distributors, a second generation who received planting materials from the former, and a randomly selected group of farmers at various distances from the first contacts. Informal discussions were held with the farmers and formal questionnaires filled. Out of the 133 first generation farmers contacted 64.7% still had Desmodium and 89.5% still had Calliandra. More farms in the contact sub-locations had the plants than the sub-locations further away. The small sample size of those with the forages could not allow effect of distance to be worked out. Tobit estimates of effects of farmer attributes influencing sharing of planting materials shows that the status of the household head in the community positively affected the likelihood of giving out planting material. The technology has a rather slow spread as indicated by percentages of farms with the forages. For better adoption and spread proponents of the technology should have the technology introduced to farmers who have substantial positions in farmer groups or have been bestowed community responsibility

Empirical antibiotherapy as a potential driver of antibiotic resistance: observations from a point prevalence survey of antibiotic consumption and resistance in Gombe, Nigeria

Background: Empirical use of antibiotics is a standard practice in the treatment of infections worldwide. However, its over utilization without subsequent culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing could be a major driver of resistance.Over reliance on empirical antibiotherapy is common in most developing countries where antibiotic policies and availability or utilization of clinical microbiology laboratory are suboptimal. A standardized approach to point prevalence survey (PPS) on antimicrobial use (AMU) in hospitals was employed to assess the antimicrobial prescribing practices in Federal Teaching Hospital Gombe (FTHG), Nigeria.Methodology: A PPS was conducted in April 2019 at FTHG by recruiting all in-patients present in the hospital on the day of survey. Data obtained from patients’ records included details of the type and indication for antibiotherapy. A customized online application developed by the University of Antwerp (www.global-pps.be) was used for data-entry, validation, analysis and reporting.Results: Of the total 326 patients who were on admission on the day of survey, 70.6% and 73.4% were on at least one antibiotic in adult and paediatric wards respectively. Most commonly used antibiotics include beta lactams such as cephalosporins (29.2%) and penicillins (22.8%), fluoroquinolones (12.4%), aminoglycosides (9.1%) and macrolides (3.4%). Among patients on antibiotics, route of  administration was mainly parenteral (71.6%) while 44.8% were on more than one antibiotic. Overall, 91.3% of the antibiotic treatments were empirical with adults, children and neonates accounting for 96.4%, 77.6% and 100.0% respectively. Empirical antibiotic use is also high in medical wards (86.3%), surgical wards (89.9%) and intensive care unit (100.0%).Conclusion: There is predominance and over-reliance on empirical antibiotherapy in our hospital. It further exposes the poor utilization of clinical microbiology laboratory and the potential for development of antibiotic resistance with resultant increase in morbidity/mortality and poor patient safety. There is need for further studies to highlight the dangers of over-reliance on empirical antibiotherapy and herald improvement in development and implementation of antibiotic stewardship programme. Keywords: Empirical antibiotherapy, antimicrobial resistance, point prevalence survey, antimicrobial stewardship   French title:L'antibiothérapie empirique comme moteur potentiel de la résistance aux antibiotiques: observations d'une enquêteponctuelle de prévalence de la consommation et de la résistance aux antibiotiques à Gombe, au Nigéria   Contexte: L'utilisation empirique d'antibiotiques est une pratique courante dans le traitement des infections dans le monde entier. Cependant, sa surutilisation sans culture ultérieure ni test de sensibilité aux antibiotiques pourrait être un facteur majeur de résistance. Le recours excessif à l'antibiothérapie empirique est courant dans la plupart des pays en développement où les politiques d'antibiotiques et la disponibilité ou l'utilisation du laboratoire de microbiologie clinique sont sous-optimales. Une approche standardisée de l'enquête de prévalence ponctuelle (PPS) sur l'utilisation des antimicrobiens (AMU) dans les hôpitaux a été utilisée pour évaluer les pratiques de prescription d'antimicrobiens au Federal Teaching Hospital Gombe (FTHG), au Nigéria.Méthodologie: Un PPS a été réalisé en avril 2019 au FTHG en recrutant tous les patients hospitalisés présents à l'hôpital le jour de l'enquête. Les données obtenues à partir des dossiers des patients comprenaient des détails sur le type et l’indication de  l’antibiothérapie. Une application en ligne personnalisée développée par l'Université d'Anvers (www.global-pps.be) a été utilisée pour la saisie, la validation, l'analyse et le reporting des données.Résultats: Sur les 326 patients au total qui étaient admis le jour de l'enquête, 70,6% et 73,4% prenaient au moins un antibiotique dans les services pour adultes et pédiatriques respectivement. Les antibiotiques les plus couramment utilisés comprennent les bêta-lactamines telles que les céphalosporines (29,2%) et les pénicillines (22,8%), les fluoroquinolones (12,4%), les aminosides (9,1%) et les macrolides (3,4%). Parmi les patients’ sous antibiotiques, la voie d'administration était principalement parentérale (71,6%) tandis que 44,8% prenaient plus d'un antibiotique. Dans l'ensemble, 91,3% des traitements antibiotiques étaient empiriques, les adultes, les enfants et les nouveau-nés représentant respectivement 96,4%, 77,6% et 100,0%. L'utilisation empirique d'antibiotiques est également élevée dans les services médicaux (86,3%), les services chirurgicaux (89,9%) et les unités de soins intensifs (100,0%).Conclusion: Il y a une prédominance et une dépendance excessive à l'antibiothérapie empirique dans notre hôpital. Il expose en outre la mauvaie utilisation du laboratoire de microbiologie clinique et le potentiel de développement d'une résistance aux antibiotiques avec une augmentation résultante de la morbidité/mortalité et une mauvaise sécurité des patients. Des études supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour mettre en évidence les dangers d'une dépendance excessive à l'antibiothérapie empirique et annoncer une amélioration dans le développement et la mise en œuvre d'un programme de gestion des antibiotiques. Mots clés: antibiothérapie empirique, résistance aux antimicrobiens, enquête ponctuelle de prévalence, gestion des antimicrobiens   &nbsp

The impact of non-tariff barriers on maize and beef trade in East Africa

On March 2, 2004, the East African Community (EAC) member states signed the protocol for the establishment of the East African Community Customs Union, which commits them, among others, to eliminate non-tariff barriers (NTBs) to increase intraregional trade. However, several NTBs are still applied by member states, raising concerns among policy makers and the business community. There is, however, no information about the magnitude of the impact of these NTBs. This study identifies the existing NTBs on maize and beef trade in East Africa and quantifies their impact on trade and the welfare of EAC citizens using a Spatial Equilibrium Model (SEM). Data on NTBs were collected from traders and transporters of maize and beef cattle in East Africa. In addition, the study found that the main types of NTBs within the three founding members of the EAC (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) are similar. They include administrative requirements (mainly licenses, municipal and council permits), taxes/duties (mainly excise and cess duty), roadblocks, customs barriers, weighbridges, licensing, corruption (e.g., through bribes) and transiting. The results of the welfare analysis vary across the three countries, but the net monetary gains are positive in all cases. A complete abolishment or a reduction of the existing NTBs in maize and beef trade increases intra-EAC maize and beef trade flows, with Kenya importing more maize from both Uganda and Tanzania, while Uganda’s beef exports to Kenya and Tanzania increase. As a result, positive net welfare gains are attained for the entire EAC maize and beef sub-sectors. In all cases, those who gain from the proposed reductions in NTBs can potentially compensate the losers, leading to potential improvements in welfare. These findings give compelling evidence in support of the elimination of NTBs within the EAC customs union. The study recommends taking a regional approach to eliminating the existing NTBs since they are similar across the member countries and across commodities so as to exploit economies of scale. Other policy recommendations include streamlining of administrative procedures at border points to improve efficiency, and speeding up the implementation of procedures at point of origin and at the border points. Finally, the study recommends the need to design and implement monitoring systems to provide feedback to the relevant authorities on the implementation of measures to remove unnecessary barriers to trade within the EAC region

Variable Step Random Walks and Self-Similar Distributions

We study a scenario under which variable step random walks give anomalous statistics. We begin by analyzing the Martingale Central Limit Theorem to find a sufficient condition for the limit distribution to be non-Gaussian. We note that the theorem implies that the scaling index $\zeta$ is 1/2. For corresponding continuous time processes, it is shown that the probability density function $W(x;t)$ satisfies the Fokker-Planck equation. Possible forms for the diffusion coefficient are given, and related to $W(x,t)$. Finally, we show how a time-series can be used to distinguish between these variable diffusion processes and L\'evy dynamics.Comment: 13pages, 2 figure

Lithographically fabricated nanopore-based electrodes for electrochemistry

We report a new technique for fabricating electrodes for electrochemical applications with lateral dimensions in the range 15−200 nm and a reproducible, well-defined geometry. This technique allows determining the electrode size by electron microscopy prior to electrochemical measurements and without contamination of the metal electrode. We measured the diffusion-limited current with stepped-current voltammetry and showed that its dependence on electrode size can be quantitatively understood if the known geometry of the electrodes is explicitly taken into account

Responding to Food Price Crisis in Eastern and Southern Africa: Policy Options for National and Regional Action

This paper addresses the magnitude and implications of food price changes in national and regional markets in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) with a view to provide the evidence base for effective policy action. Specifically, the paper: - analyses trends and outlooks in country and regional data, presents evidence on the regional food situation, and explores the nexus between high domestic food prices and global food prices, - highlights regional and national dimensions of food price increases and how they are related to food security in the region, and - provides practical short-, medium- and long-term options for governments and other stakeholders for addressing the problem posed by the food price crisis