The Study of International Regimes

Hundreds or even thousands of international legal instruments on "the environment" are in existence. What happens to international environmental agreements once they are signed, and how does the process of implementing such agreements influence their effectiveness? These are the questions that motivate the IIASA project "Implementation and Effectiveness of International Environmental Commitments (IEC)". Research teams are examining these questions from many angles and with different methods. In this paper, the authors survey the literature on international "regimes". Regimes are social institutions that influence the behavior of states and their subjects. They consist of informal and formalized principles and norms, as well as specific rules and procedures. The term is explicitly broad and captures the unwritten understandings and relationships, as well as the formal legal agreements, that influence how states and individuals behave in any given issue-area. Scholarship over the last decade has elaborated how regimes are formed; this paper surveys that work and focuses on more recent scholarship that has turned from the formation of regimes to the question of what makes regimes "effective". The paper is one foundation for IEC's effort to build a database about the characteristics of international regimes. The database will consist of key variables related to the formation and implementation of international agreements and will allow systematic use of historical evidence from a large number of cases. The goal is to make possible the testing of hypotheses and the drawing of general conclusions about which variables are causally linked to "effectiveness". Existing research has led to hypotheses and tests based on single case studies or small samples of cases, but conclusions have been difficult to generalize to other cases because variables are left uncontrolled and the social processes are complex. In contrast, the IEC effort will include all the major variables related to effectiveness. The team will employ experts in each case to perform the coding, thus allowing for assessments (including subjective evaluations) of a wide range of data. The team is now preparing and testing a data protocol, as well as a manual that describes the major questions in the data protocol and how they should be answered. The protocol and manual will refine the variables we are coding and their relationship to major hypotheses

Enhancement of the Curie temperature in GaMnAs/InGaMnAs superlattices

We report on an enhancement of the Curie temperature in GaMnAs/InGaMnAs superlattices grown by low-temperature molecular beam epitaxy, which is due to thin InGaMnAs or InGaAs films embedded into the GaMnAs layers. The pronounced increase of the Curie temperature is strongly correlated to the In concentration in the embedded layers. Curie temperatures up to 110 K are observed in such structures compared to 60 K in GaMnAs single layers grown under the same conditions. A further increase in T$_C$ up to 130 K can be achieved using post-growth annealing at temperatures near the growth temperature. Pronounced thickness fringes in the high resolution X-ray diffraction spectra indicate good crystalline quality and sharp interfaces in the structures.Comment: 4 pages, 4 figures, submitted to Appl. Phys. Let

Electronic and magnetic properties of GaMnAs: Annealing effects

The effect of short-time and long-time annealing at 250C on the conductivity, hole density, and Curie temperature of GaMnAs single layers and GaMnAs/InGaMnAs heterostructures is studied by in-situ conductivity measurements as well as Raman and SQUID measurements before and after annealing. Whereas the conductivity monotonously increases with increasing annealing time, the hole density and the Curie temperature show a saturation after annealing for 30 minutes. The incorporation of thin InGaMnAs layers drastically enhances the Curie temperature of the GaMnAs layers.Comment: 4 pages, 6 figures, submitted to Physica

Curie temperature and carrier concentration gradients in MBE grown GaMnAs layers

We report on detailed investigations of the electronic and magnetic properties of ferromagnetic GaMnAs layers, which have been fabricated by low-temperature molecular-beam epitaxy. Superconducting quantum interference device measurements reveal a decrease of the Curie temperature from the surface to the GaMnAs/GaAs interface. While high resolution x-ray diffraction clearly shows a homogeneous Mn distribution, a pronounced decrease of the carrier concentration from the surface towards the GaMnAs/GaAs interface has been found by Raman spectroscopy as well as electrochemical capacitance-voltage profiling. The gradient in Curie temperature seems to be a general feature of GaMnAs layers grown at low-temperature. Possible explanations are discussed.Comment: 3 pages, 4 figures, submitted to AP

Subclinical thyroid function and cardiovascular events in patients with atrial fibrillation

Objective: To evaluate if subclinical thyroid dysfunction is associated with cardiovascular (CV) risk in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF). Methods: Swiss-AF is a prospective cohort of community-dwelling participants aged ≥ 65 years with AF. Primary outcome was a composite endpoint of CV events (myocardial infarctions, stroke/transitory ischemic events, systemic embolism, heart failure (HF) hospitalizations, CV deaths). Secondary outcomes were component endpoints, total mortality, and AF-progression. Exposures were thyroid dysfunction categories, TSH and fT4. Sensitivity analyses were performed for amiodarone use, thyroid hormones use, and competing events. Results: 2415 patients were included (mean age: 73.2 years; 27% women). 196 (8.4%) had subclinical hypothyroidism and 53 (2.3%) subclinical hyperthyroidism. Subclinical thyroid dysfunction was not associated with CV events, during a median follow-up of 2.1 years (max 5 years): age- and sex-adjusted hazard ratio (adjHR) of 0.99 (95% CI: 0.69-1.41) for subclinical hypothyroidism and 0.55 (95% CI: 0.23-1.32) for subclinical hyperthyroidism. Results remained robust following multivariable adjustment and sensitivity analyses. In euthyroid patients, fT4 levels were associated with an increased risk for the composite endpoint and HF (adjHR: 1.46, 95% CI: 1.04-2.05; adjHR: 1.70, 95% CI: 1.08-2.66, respectively, for the highest quintile vs the middle quintile). Results remained similar following multivariable adjustment and remained significant for HF in sensitivity analyses. No association between subclinical thyroid dysfunction and total mortality or AF-progression was found. Conclusions: Subclinical hypothyroidism was not associated with increased CV risk in AF patients. Higher levels of fT4 with normal TSH were associated with a higher risk for HF

Clientelism as civil society? Unpacking the relationship between clientelism and democracy at the local level in South Africa

This article, building on analyses from the global south, attempts to reframe democratic expectations by considering where previously maligned practices such as clientelism may hold moments of democracy. It does so by comparing the theory of civil society with that of clientelism, and its African counterpart neo-patrimonialism. It argues that clientelism as civil society may fulfil democratic tasks such as holding the (local) state accountable, strengthening civil and political liberties and providing channels of access for previously marginalised groups. Clientelism is not necessarily a reflection of imposed power relations but, at times, can demonstrate a conscious political strategy, to generate development, on the part of its protagonists.IS

Effect of gender difference on platelet reactivity

Background Previous studies have suggested that women do not accrue equal therapeutic benefit from antiplatelet medication as compared with men. The physiological mechanism and clinical implications behind this gender disparity have yet to be established. Methods On-treatment platelet reactivity was determined in 717 men and 234 women on dual antiplatelet therapy, undergoing elective coronary stent implantation. Platelet function testing was performed using arachidonic acid and adenosine diphosphate-induced light transmittance aggregometry (LTA) and the VerifyNow P2Y12 and Aspirin assays. Also the incidence of all-cause death, non-fatal acute myocardial infarction, stent thrombosis and ischaemic stroke was evaluated. Results Women had higher baseline platelet counts than men. Women exhibited a higher magnitude of on-aspirin platelet reactivity using LTA, but not using the VerifyNow Aspirin assay. The magnitude of on-clopidogrel platelet reactivity was significantly higher in women as compared with men with both tests used. The cut-off value to identify patients at risk as well as the incidence of clinical endpoints was similar between women and men (16/234[6.8%] vs. 62/717[8.6%], p=0.38). Conclusion Although the magnitude of platelet reactivity was higher in women, the absolute difference between genders was small and both the cut-off value to identify patients at risk and the incidence of the composite endpoint were similar between genders. Thus, it is unlikely that the difference in platelet reactivity accounts for a worse prognosis in women