A review of introduced cervids in Chile

We review the extent of exotic deer distributions in Chile, which are encountered in all provinces, including Tierra del Fuego, except for possibly Region III; many deer are contained in at least 107 enclosures. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) by far has the largest feral population of exotic cervids in southern South America, providing source animals that can easily cross the Andes between Chile and Argentina. Red deer was introduced from Europe to the central valley of Chile in 1928. Since the 1940s, feral populations have also expanded from Argentina into Chile, by way of easily accessible, low-elevation mountain passes of the Andes, accompanied by further direct shipments from Argentina. The area occupied by 1990 was estimated at 3400km2, whereas an analysis in 2003 estimated an area of 7700km2. The overall area invaded by 2003 was between 3742'S and 5455'S, and 7336'W and 6950'W (Argentina and Chile combined, although non-contiguous). Ecological impact of the red deer in Chile has been described since 1981, and red deer features in the Chilean Pest Manual. A conservative rate for the red deer expansion was estimated at 1km/year, but likely is more rapid where habitat modifications facilitate movement. The pre-Columbian northern limit of the native cervid huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) was 30S, and because red deer has occupied all habitat types currently used by huemul, it could thus spread 750km further north. To the south, all areas are suitable for red deer. Invasion patterns will depend on additional intentional introductions and enclosures on both sides of the Andes because of the omnipresent risk of escapes. Fallow, axis and roe deer (Dama dama, Axis axis, Capreolus capreolus, respectively) also have been introduced to Chile and occur in many enclosures. Fallow deer recently escaped on Chiló Island, became established and raised concerns because of its potential impacts on several endemic species on the island. The striking lack of information on feral deer may relate to policies and laws about firearms and restricted access to hunting areas, resulting in the apparent absence of popular hunting, which, nevertheless, could be a potential tool should the invasion continue and lead to future deer overabundance.Fil: Fluck, Werner Thomas. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; Argentina. Fundación Bariloche; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; ArgentinaFil: Smith-Flueck, Jo Anne M.. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; Argentin

Huemul heresies: Beliefs in search of supporting data. 2. Biological and ecological considerations

Scarce information from remnant huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) populations in marginal habitats can lead to erroneous interpretations of the species' natural history, such as assumptions of being a highly inflexible species. We evaluated discrepancies between historical accounts and recent interpretations regarding biological and ecological traits to better understand factors preventing recovery of highly endangered huemul. Early information supports the theory that huemul are currently living under suboptimal conditions. We find variability to be the norm for huemul, as with other cervids, in regard to antler characteristics, group size and density, sexual segregation, and social and feeding behaviours. No evidence supports competition and disease from livestock or red deer as having caused declines or preventing recovery. Instead, livestock management, particularly presence of people and dogs, creates incompatibilities. Where red deer are sympatric with huemul, red deer are outnumbered by livestock by 2100%, and being regularly inspected at slaughter, livestock provide a good proxy for diseases afflicting red deer. Inadequate antipredator responses due to evolutionary absence of cursorial predators are unsupported as several Canis species coexisted with huemul, overlapping with dogs that arrived with Paleoindians. Three populations have increased despite high predator density. Age at maturity for huemul is 1 year, with evidence that fawns may also breed. Reported twinning needs confirmation, but occurs in congeneric taruca (H. antisensis) and other Odocoilines, and huemul frequently raise fawns successfully every year; life cycle calculations should apply these parameters. Like taruca, dominance group breeding systems have been described repeatedly. Although huemul bucks were recently claimed unique by displaying territoriality year-round, data do not support such behaviour. Two sole dispersal records (8 and 15.5 km) are unlikely to represent maximum dispersal capacity and do not support barriers assumed from few kilometres of unsuitable habitat. Huemul using 500 ha could predictably disperse up to 90 km, well within the ranges of other cervids. Mistakenly assuming barriers and underestimating reproductive capacity may distract from discovering the factors affecting recolonisations. Sustained recovery may depend on re-establishing source populations on more productive habitats, guided by zooarcheological and historical data.Fil: Fluck, Werner Thomas. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata; Argentina. Universidad de Basilea; Suiza. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; Argentina. Fundación Bariloche; ArgentinaFil: Smith-Flueck, Jo Anne M.. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; Argentin

Huemul heresies: Beliefs in search of supporting data. 1. Historical and zooarcheological considerations

Patagonian huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) was eliminated from many former ranges before arrival of early explorers who already acknowledged its rareness. Considering huemul analogous to ungulates in mountains back home, huemul was called mountain deer, which is repeatedly cited without validation and remains the orthodox interpretation. Yet other species considered analogous also use lowlands, flatlands, deserts and grasslands, and the only congeneric, H. antisensis, uses habitat with high affinity to Patagonian grasslands. Recent comparative analyses of the post-cranial morphology show that huemul cannot be associated with rock-climbing species, but falls within ranges of other cervids. Interpretations of past human utilisation rely on one study of economic anatomy and bone remains, frequently concluding that huemul was unimportant to hunter-gatherers. However, considering only bone fat and omitting easily removable fat is erroneous. Total energy of deer in autumnwinter partitions into 53% as fat and hunter-gatherers elsewhere focussed on deer during the peak fat cycle, using all easily removable fat (1200% more energy than in bones) and consuming fat and marrow while butchering. Natives are likely to have influenced huemul distribution and density in winter ranges due to high incentives (fat) and easiness to kill. Sparse evidence is likely the result of surveys in Patagonia having been biased towards caves, leaving out transient movements and camps. Generalist cervids passed the Panama land-bridge filter to reach South America. Considering paleoclimate, Hippocamelus dispersed east of the Andes, pushed by glaciations even to north-eastern Brazil. Hippocamelus would reach and cross Andes only after deglaciations. As a mixed feeder, huemul utilised Patagonian steppe. Hunter-gatherers arrived after the last glaciation and influenced the local distribution of Hippocamelus, especially in northern and central Chile, after early adoption of an agricultural lifestyle. Introduction of horses converted native economies through adoption of an equestrian lifestyle and arrival of millions of introduced livestock, which thus affected early writings. Only few records indicate the presence of large groups of huemul far from forests, and substantial killings. Human-caused range contractions of northern ungulates affected mainly losses at low elevations and most species persisted in the marginal periphery, including high-elevation refuges. Paleoecology, zoogeography and land-use history in southern South America indicate that mountain huemul is a secondary relict created by impacts of post-Columbian colonisation. We caution against the rigid application of modern huemul habitats in interpreting past habitat use and huemul ecology, and simply considering the few extra-Andean accounts as abnormal outliers.Fil: Fluck, Werner Thomas. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata; Argentina. Universidad de Basilea; Suiza. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; Argentina. Fundación Bariloche; ArgentinaFil: Smith-Flueck, Jo Anne M.. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; Argentin

Marcando con radio collar un grupo del amenazado huemul patagónico por primera vez en Argentina

En Argentina quedan 350-500 huemules en peligro de extinción. Se marcaron huemules con radio-collares durante 6 días de invierno. El encuentro de un huemul cada día promedió 93 minutos (17 grupos, 37 individuos). El período de tiempo desde la detección hasta la inmovilización promedió 46 minutos; la distancia de tiro promedió 15.7 m; y desde la inmovilización hasta recuperación promedió 45.5 minutos. Se realizaron 10 intentos de captura, de los cuales seis fueron exitosos. Comparado con la única radio-marcación anterior en Argentina, esta operación requirió 96.5% menos días-hombre/animal. De los huemules marcados, 86% presentaban patologías clínicas, posiblemente por estar restringidos a áreas marginales o sumideros, es decir, trampas ecológicas. Esta operación permitió marcar por primera vez un macho y un grupo de seis huemules en Argentina.In Argentina, 350-500 endangered huemul remain. Huemul were radio-collared in Chubut during six winter days. Encountering huemul each day averaged 93 minutes (17 groups, 37 individuals). Spotting until darting an animal averaged 46 minutes; darting distance averaged 15.7 m; and darting until recovery averaged 45.5 minutes. Ten capture attempts were made, of which six were successful. Compared to the only huemul previous radio-collared in Argentina (2016), the present operation required 96.5% less man-days/animal. Of marked huemul, 86% presented clinical pathologies, best explained by restriction to marginal if not sink areas, or ecological traps. This operation allowed the first-ever marking of huemul bucks in Argentina, and a group of six huemul.Fil: Fluck, Werner Thomas. Administración de Parques Nacionales; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad de Basilea; SuizaFil: Smith Flueck, Jo Anne M.. Universidad Nacional del Comahue; Argentin

Some Mathematical and Numerical Aspects inAluminum Production

In this paper, we present a mathematical modeling of some magnetohydrodynamic effects arising in an aluminum production cell as well as its numerical approximation by a finite element method. We put the emphasis on the magnetic effects which live in the whole three dimensional space and which are solved numerically with a domain decomposition metho

Variation in reproduction of a temperate deer, the southern pudu (Pudu puda)

Pudu (Pudu puda), occurring in the southern cone of Latin America, has been classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), yet little is known about this animal in the wild, with most knowledge on the breeding behaviour coming from captive animals. For this second-smallest deer in the world, delayed implantation has been suggested to explain the two peaks in the annual cycle of male sexual hormones on the basis of the accepted tenet that the breeding period occurs only once a year, between March and June. However, in the present study, birth dates from fawns born at the Los Canelos semi-captive breeding centre in Chile and male courting behaviour revealed the possibility of two rutting periods: autumn and spring. To our knowledge, this is the first time that late-fall births (May through early June for 17% of fawns in the study population) have been recorded for the southern pudu; two of these four births were conceived by females in the wild. From zoo and captive-animal birth records (n = 97), only three fawns were born in the fall. For all births combined (n = 121), 77% occurred in spring. The roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and Pere David deer (Elaphurus davidianus) have been considered the only two temperate cervids in which sexual activity is initiated by increasing daylength and which breed in early summer. Yet, the present results indicate a similar response from the southern pudu when under a wild or semi-captive environment, with breeding taking place in spring. These results suggest that this species may either have two reproductive periods per year or retains the capacity to be a breeder for a much more extended period of time than documented by earlier studies. Pudu, like other temperate deer, is responsive to photoperiod for timing its breeding period, but may further optimise its production of offspring by also responding to other environmental cues such as seasonal variation in food supply when climatic conditions are favourable.Fil: Vidal, Fernando. Universidad de La Frontera; ChileFil: Smith-Flueck, Jo Anne M.. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; ArgentinaFil: Fluck, Werner Thomas. Fundación Bariloche; Argentina. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; ArgentinaFil: Bartos, Ludek. No especifíca

The implications of selenium deficiency for wild herbivore conservation: A review

Selenium (Se) is required at a fundamental physiological level in all animals. Adequate levels of Se are necessary for proper bone metabolism, iodine metabolism, immune function, reproductive success, and recruitment. Selenium is a component of enzymes which scavenge oxidative free radicals that would otherwise degrade cell membranes. Severe deficiency results in obvious symptoms such as white muscle disease in ungulates. However, more frequently, deficiency may be chronic and subclinical. Individuals then display no obvious signs of malady, yet performance suffers until their populations decline without apparent cause or through proximate factors which obscure underlying primary factors. Although well known in domestic stock, the link between population performance and Se deficiency in wild populations has been difficult to firmly establish. Confounding factors include the role of vitamin E, which also acts as an antioxidant to mitigate the need for Se under some circumstances; changing Se requirements at changing times in animal life history; changing Se requirements in relation to pollution levels and other factors causing oxidative stress; and the non-uniform distribution of Se in its various chemical forms in the environment. The latter point is especially important to wild populations that have been reduced to remnant portions of their previous range. Here, we have reviewed the literature of Se in wildlife as well as provided an introduction to Se in physiology and Se behavior in the environment for the wildlife researcher and manager. We conclude that unrecognized Se deficiency may often impede optimal population performance, and we provide recommendations for habitat analysis with regard to Se which can be used in future research. Finally, evidence that the amount of available Se in the environment is decreasing from anthropogenic causes is shown.Fil: Fluck, Werner Thomas. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata; ArgentinaFil: Smith Flueck, J. M.. Universidad Atlantida Argentina; ArgentinaFil: Mionczynski, J.. No especifíca;Fil: Mincher, B. J.. No especifíca

Cyclic nucleotide signalling in malaria parasites.

The cyclic nucleotides 3', 5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and 3', 5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) are intracellular messengers found in most animal cell types. They usually mediate an extracellular stimulus to drive a change in cell function through activation of their respective cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinases, PKA and PKG. The enzymatic components of the malaria parasite cyclic nucleotide signalling pathways have been identified, and the genetic and biochemical studies of these enzymes carried out to date are reviewed herein. What has become very clear is that cyclic nucleotides play vital roles in controlling every stage of the complex malaria parasite life cycle. Our understanding of the involvement of cyclic nucleotide signalling in orchestrating the complex biology of malaria parasites is still in its infancy, but the recent advances in our genetic tools and the increasing interest in signalling will deliver more rapid progress in the coming years

Osteopathology and selenium deficiency co-occurring in a population of endangered Patagonian huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus)

Background: About 1,000 endangered Patagonian huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) remain in Chile and 350-500 in Argentina. Most groups (>100) are not recovering, and prevalence of osteopathology in Argentina was at least 57%. Here I describe relevant cases of osteopathology from a Chilean population which, however, recently also provided data on trace mineral status, supporting the initial hypothesis that nutrition may be a primary etiologic factor. Additionally, recent data on bone chemical composition of Argentine cases and soil analyses are discussed. Results: Fluoride levels in Argentine cases with osteopathology were low and fluorosis was discarded as an etiological factor. Selenium deficiency occurred in 73% of huemul from the Chilean population which exhibited several cases with osteopathology. The pathophysiognomy included extensive erosion; tooth loss;  porosification; perforations of palate, maxillar and mandibular bone with frequent exposure of tooth roots; and fractured mandibula. Areas currently used by remaining huemul have mainly acidic volcanic soils, which reduces selenium bioavailability: mean soil selenium levels from areas typically used by extant huemul were very deficient (0.19 ppm), corroborating documented overt selenium deficiency in local livestock and plants. The area of extant huemul is known to result in primary iodine deficiency in livestock which is aggravated by selenium deficiency. Conclusions: Currently the most parsimonious explanation for frequent osteopathology and lack of numerical recovery are the combined effects of selenium and iodine deficiencies based on: osteopathology in a population of selenium deficient huemul; selenium deficient livestock, plants and soils; acidic soils; and regional primary iodine deficiency. The nexus between mineral nutrition and population dynamics of huemul may be due to constraints on their movements to fertile lowlands, including the elimination of historic migratory traditions, and concomitant elimination of source populations

Exercise Performance of Lowlanders with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Acutely Exposed to 2048 m: A Randomized Cross-Over Trial

Background: Amongst the millions of travelers to high altitude worldwide are many with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but data regarding the effects of acute exposure to altitude on exercise performance are limited. The current study investigated how acute exposure to moderate altitude influences exercise performance in COPD patients, providing novel insights to the underlying physiological mechanisms. Methods: Twenty-nine COPD patients, GOLD grade 2-3, median (quartile) forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV$_1$) of 60% predicted (46; 69) performed cycling incremental ramp exercise test (IET) at 490 m and after acute exposure of 2-6 hours to 2048 m or vice versa, according to a randomized cross-over design. Exercise performance and breath-by-breath analyses of the last 30 seconds of each IET were compared between locations. Results: At 2048 m compared to 490 m, the maximum power output (Wmax) was 77 watts (62;104) vs 88 watts (75;112), median reduction 5 watts (95% CI, 2 to 8, P<0.05), corresponding to a median reduction of 6% (95% CI, 2 to 11, P<0.05) compared to 490 m. The peak oxygen uptake (V'O$_2$peak) was 70% predicted (56;86) at 2048 m vs 79% predicted (63;90) at 490 m, median reduction of 6% (95% CI, 3 to 9, P<0.05). The oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry (SpO$_2$) at 2048 m was reduced by 8% (95% CI, 4 to 9, P<0.05) compared to 490 m. The minute ventilation (V'$_E$) increased by 2.8L/min (95% CI, 0.9 to 4.2, P<0.05) at 2048 m. The maximum heart rate and the subjective sense of dyspnea and leg fatigue did not change. Conclusion: Lowlanders with moderate-to-severe COPD acutely exposed to 2048 m reveal small but significant reduction in cycling IET along with a reduced V'O$_2$peak. As dyspnea perception and maximal heart rate were unchanged, the lower blood oxygenation and exaggerated ventilatory response were culprit factors for the reduced performance