THE URUGUAY ROUND AGREEMENT ON AGRICULTURE: AN EVALUATION

Contact for this paper: Laura Bipes/University of Minnesota/Department of Applied Economics/ 1994 Buford Avenue./ St. Paul, MN 55108 USA. From the start, agriculture played a central role in the Uruguay Round of GATT trade negotiations. The Punta del Este Declaration called for a solution to the problems facing agricultural trade through modified trade rules and an agreement to lower protection levels. It was recognized that such an improvement implied negotiations on the national farm policies as well as just trade policies. The time that it took to reach agreement reflected the political sensitivity and technical complexity of this task. The Agreement embodied in the Final Act of the Uruguay Round breaks new ground for agriculture, and takes a big step towards placing this sector of world trade under rules more consistent with those in operation in other areas. However, the degree of liberalization of markets is modest, and much remains to be done in future rounds of negotiations. The most far-reaching element in the Agreement is a change in the rules regarding market access. With very few exceptions, all participating countries have agreed to convert all existing non-tariff barriers (along with unbound tariffs) into bound duties and not to introduce new non-tariff measures. Negotiations agreed to reduce these new bound tariffs, as well as tariffs already bound earlier, according to Schedules included as a part of the Agreement. "Tariffication" will impose changes in import policies for a number of countries. Canada will replace import quotas for dairy and poultry products with tariffs, initially at a high level. The European Union will replace its variable levy with tariffs, though a maximum duty-paid price for cereals has been negotiated which puts a limit on the tariff charged. Latin American countries have generally engaged in tariffication in recent years in advance of the Uruguay Round Agreement: for these, and other countries their tariffs will now be bound. The US will forgo the use of Section 22 import quotas and the negotiation of voluntary export restraint agreements with beef suppliers, but the impact on these markets is likely to be small. Japan and Korea have been allowed to delay tariffication in the case of rice for the next few years. The Agreement provides in cases of tariffication for "minimum access opportunities", to guard against the impact of high initial tariff rates. This will open up reduced-tariff quotas for a number of products including beef, cereals and fruits and vegetables. The quotas will be expanded to about 5 percent of consumption over the 6 year period. Japan and Korea have agreed to a greater expansion of market access for rice in compensation for the delay in introducing tariffs. The ability of countries to control export subsidies in agricultural markets was one of the main issues under discussion in the negotiation. Under the Agreement, countries accept commitments on reducing expenditure on export subsidies as well on the quantity of subsidized exports. This will limit export subsidies by the EU and other countries, for such products as wheat, dairy products and beef, and should lead to firmer world market prices in these commodities. These quantities are also expressed in the Schedules which form part of the Agreement. Countries have also agreed not to apply export subsidies to commodities not subsidized in the base period. The Agreement also sets rules and commitments for domestic support policies. It defines a set of policies which are deemed to be less trade-distorting than others, and allocates them to a "green box" which is broadly immune to challenge. Other policies not sheltered in this way are subject to reduction through a limit on the total support given by domestic subsidies and administered prices. It was decided that neither the U.S. deficiency payments (under current legislation) nor the new hectarage compensation payments under the reformed Common Agricultural Policy of the EU need to be reduced. It was also agreed that subsidies that conform to the new rules are sheltered from international challenge under the GATT. Developing Countries generally face less stringent commitments, having 10 years rather than six to make the changes, and having to meet only two-thirds of the reduction targets. In addition, development policies are included broadly in the "green box". Along with the provisions on domestic and trade policies in the Agreement, participants also concluded an Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). The goal was to make it easier to distinguish between genuine health and safety issues and disguised protection. The right of countries to set their own safety and health standards is reaffirmed, but with the provision that such standards should be based on scientific justification and that use be made of international standards where possible. The extent to which the Agreement will lead to greater market access, curb export subsidies and modify domestic policies in the next few years can only be determined from a detailed inspection of the Schedule of commitments made by the individual countries. Paradoxically, the immediate impact on national policies is likely in most cases to be small. Many countries have been engaged in a process of reducing government support to agriculture, and making such support more closely targetted to needs, in advance of the outcome of the Round. Policy reforms in the EU, Canada, Sweden, Australia and New Zealand, along with much of Latin America, have been strongly influenced by the negotiations in the Uruguay Round. The Agreement thus takes on the task of supporting and locking-in such reforms, and encouraging them in other countries. In some aspects the Agreement falls short of expectations (or at least initial demands). It does not constitute a major move toward free trade in agricultural products: the cost of changing the rules has been to give up some degree of liberalization. The tariffs which countries will impose in place of non-tariff barriers are in many cases so high that trade will be restricted to the agreed access quantities. Export subsidy programs will continue though at a reduced level. The major pressure to reinstrument farm policies will continue to be from domestic budget constraints. It will take further rounds of negotiations to reduce protection in agricultural markets to a level comparable to that for most manufactured products. However, with the rule changes and the new types of country commitments agreed, a much more promising basis bas been created for future negotiations.International Relations/Trade,

Does night-time aircraft noise trigger mortality? A case-crossover study on 24 886 cardiovascular deaths

AIMS; : It is unclear whether night-time noise events, including from aeroplanes, could trigger a cardiovascular death. In this study, we investigate the potential acute effects of aircraft noise on mortality and the specific role of different night-time exposure windows by means of a case-crossover study design.; METHODS AND RESULTS; : We selected 24 886 cases of death from cardiovascular disease (CVD) from the Swiss National Cohort around Zurich Airport between 2000 and 2015. For night-time deaths, exposure levels 2 h preceding death were significantly associated with mortality for all causes of CVD [OR = 1.44 (1.03-2.04) for the highest exposure group (LAeq > 50 dB vs. <20 dB)]. Most consistent associations were observed for ischaemic heart diseases, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and arrhythmia. Association were more pronounced for females (P = 0.02) and for people living in areas with low road and railway background noise (P = 0.01) and in buildings constructed before 1970 (P = 0.36). We calculated a population attributable fraction of 3% in our study population.; CONCLUSION; : Our findings suggest that night-time aircraft noise can trigger acute cardiovascular mortality. The association was similar to that previously observed for long-term aircraft noise exposure

The impacts of EU accession on the agriculture of the Visegrad Countries

The Visegrad Countries (VC)2 joined the European Union in 2004, which has offered several possibilities and challenges for their agriculture. The aim of the paper is to evaluate the status of the sector in the light of latest available data as well as to identify the factors lying behind different country performances. Results suggest that EU accession has had a diverse impact on the Visegrad Countries’ agriculture and member states capitalised their possibilities in a different manner, due to initial conditions and pre- and post-accession policies

The association of road traffic noise with cognition in adolescents: a cohort study in Switzerland

Environmental noise exposure has been shown to affect children's cognition, but the concept of cognition is multifaceted, and studies on associations with noise are still inconclusive and fragmented. We studied cognitive change within one year in 882 adolescents aged 10-17 years in response to road traffic noise exposure. Participants filled in a comprehensive questionnaire and underwent cognitive testing twice at an interval of one year. Figural and verbal memory was measured with the Intelligenz-Struktur-Test (IST), and concentration accuracy and constancy were measured with FAKT-II and d2 test. Exposure to noise and other environmental stressors were modelled for school and home location at baseline. Missing data was addressed with multiple imputation. Cross-sectional multilevel analyses and longitudinal change score analyses were performed. In cross-sectional analyses, figural memory was significantly reduced by -0.27 (95%CI -0.49,-0.04) units per 10 dB road traffic noise increase at home (L(den)). Longitudinal analyses showed a significant reduction of concentration constancy Z-scores between baseline and follow-up by -0.13 (95%CI -0.25, 0.00) per 10 dB road traffic noise at home (L(den)). Our study indicates that road traffic noise at home reduces cognitive performance in adolescents. Larger cohorts with longer follow-up time are needed to confirm these results

SPoC: A novel framework for relating the amplitude of neuronal oscillations to behaviorally relevant parameters

Previously, modulations in power of neuronal oscillations have been functionally linked to sensory, motor and cognitive operations. Such links are commonly established by relating the power modulations to specific target variables such as reaction times or task ratings. Consequently, the resulting spatio-spectral representation is subjected to neurophysiological interpretation. As an alternative, independent component analysis (ICA) or alternative decomposition methods can be applied and the power of the components may be related to the target variable. In this paper we show that these standard approaches are suboptimal as the first does not take into account the superposition of many sources due to volume conduction, while the second is unable to exploit available information about the target variable. To improve upon these approaches we introduce a novel (supervised) source separation framework called Source Power Comodulation (SPoC). SPoC makes use of the target variable in the decomposition process in order to give preference to components whose power comodulates with the target variable. We present two algorithms that implement the SPoC approach. Using simulations with a realistic head model, we show that the SPoC algorithms are able extract neuronal components exhibiting high correlation of power with the target variable. In this task, the SPoC algorithms outperform other commonly used techniques that are based on the sensor data or ICA approaches. Furthermore, using real electroencephalography (EEG) recordings during an auditory steady state paradigm, we demonstrate the utility of the SPoC algorithms by extracting neuronal components exhibiting high correlation of power with the intensity of the auditory input. Taking into account the results of the simulations and real EEG recordings, we conclude that SPoC represents an adequate approach for the optimal extraction of neuronal components showing coupling of power with continuously changing behaviorally relevant parameters

Combining brain-computer interfaces and assistive technologies: state-of-the-art and challenges

In recent years, new research has brought the field of EEG-based Brain-Computer Interfacing (BCI) out of its infancy and into a phase of relative maturity through many demonstrated prototypes such as brain-controlled wheelchairs, keyboards, and computer games. With this proof-of-concept phase in the past, the time is now ripe to focus on the development of practical BCI technologies that can be brought out of the lab and into real-world applications. In particular, we focus on the prospect of improving the lives of countless disabled individuals through a combination of BCI technology with existing assistive technologies (AT). In pursuit of more practical BCIs for use outside of the lab, in this paper, we identify four application areas where disabled individuals could greatly benefit from advancements in BCI technology, namely,“Communication and Control”, “Motor Substitution”, “Entertainment”, and “Motor Recovery”. We review the current state of the art and possible future developments, while discussing the main research issues in these four areas. In particular, we expect the most progress in the development of technologies such as hybrid BCI architectures, user-machine adaptation algorithms, the exploitation of users’ mental states for BCI reliability and confidence measures, the incorporation of principles in human-computer interaction (HCI) to improve BCI usability, and the development of novel BCI technology including better EEG devices

Mutual effects of fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, and fireworks on cause-specific acute cardiovascular mortality: a case-crossover study in communities affected by aircraft noise

Ambient air pollution is the leading cause of environmental mortality and morbidity worldwide. However, the individual contributions to acute mortality of traffic-related air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) are still debated. We conducted a time-stratified case-crossover study for a population located around Zurich airport in Switzerland, including 24,886 adult cardiovascular deaths from the Swiss National Cohort. We estimated the risk of cause-specific cardiovascular mortality associated with daily NO2 and PM2.5 concentrations at home using distributed lag models up to 7 days preceding death, adjusted for daily temperature, precipitation, acute night-time aircraft noise, firework celebrations, and holidays. Cardiovascular mortality was associated with NO2, whereas the association with PM2.5 disappeared upon adjustment for NO2. The strongest association was observed between NO2 and ischemic stroke mortality (odds ratio = 1.55 per 10 mug/m(3), 95% confidence intervals = 1.20-2.00). Cause-specific mortality analyses showed differences in terms of delayed effect: odds ratios were highest at 1-3 days after exposure for most outcomes but at lags of 3-5 days for heart failure. Individual vulnerabilities to NO2 associated cardiovascular mortality also varied by cause of death, possibly highlighting the role of different behaviours and risk factors in the most susceptible groups. The risk of cardiovascular mortality was also increased on firework days and after public holidays, independent from NO2 and PM2.5 concentrations. This study confirms the association between ambient NO2, as a marker for primary emissions, and acute cardiovascular mortality in a specific setting around a major airport. Future research should clarify the role of additional air pollutants including ultra-fine particles on cardiovascular diseases to inform most efficient control measures