Innovation and Technology Dissemination in Clean Technology Markets and the Developing World: The Role of Trade, Intellectual Property Rights, and Uncertainty

Innovation is an inherently risky and uncertain process. Many of the broader challenges to innovation in general are both mirrored and exaggerated in clean technology innovation. The development of environmental technologies is further complicated by the public goods nature of knowledge, environmental externalities, and uncertainty. This study on clean technology focuses on recent work on the role of uncertainty, the participation of emerging and developing nations, the controversy surrounding intellectual property rights, and the variety of market actors and strategies in place. The paper also considers the policy instruments that are available, the cost, benefits and consequences of their use. As scholars continue to analyze when, where, why and how clean technology innovations are developed and adopted, it is essential that government policymakers aim to reduce uncertainty and risk, incentivize innovation with effective intellectual property rights, and foster transparency in the market. This continues to be a field of increasing future importance, and a rich area for continued academic study and analysis. Consumers, government policymakers and innovators would all benefit from a greater understanding of the process of technological change in the development, diffusion and financing of clean technologies.Innowacja to proces z natury ryzykowny i niepewny. Wiele wyzwań związanych z innowacjami dotyczy również czystych technologii. Rozwój technologii środowiskowych jest ponadto utrudniony ze względu na specyfikę wiedzy, efekty zewnętrzne i niepewność. Niniejsza analiza koncentruje się na przeglądzie literatury na temat roli niepewności, zaangażowania państw rozwijających się, kontrowersji dotyczących praw własności intelektualnej oraz uczestników rynku i ich strategii. Praca ta rozważa także dostępne instrumenty polityki, koszty, korzyści i konsekwencje ich zastosowania. Naukowcy wciąż analizują to kiedy, gdzie, dlaczego i jak tworzone i rozwijane są innowacje dotyczące czystych technologii. Niezbędne jest, aby twórcy polityki rządów dążyli do redukcji niepewność i ryzyka, stymulowali innowacje poprzez skuteczne egzekwowanie praw własności intelektualnej oraz wspierali przejrzystość rynku. Kwestie te będą odgywać coraz większą rolę w przyszłości, stając się przedmiotem dalszych badań i analiz naukowych. Konsumenci, twórcy polityki rządowej oraz innowatorzy mogliby odnieść korzyści z lepszego zrozumienia procesu zmian technologicznych, związanych z rozwojem, dyfuzją i finansowaniem czystych technologii

Enhanced Corporate Governance for Mutual Funds: A Flawed Concept that Deserves Serious Reconsideration

Mutual funds are the most popular retail investment in America, a testament to the simplicity and transparency of the mutual fund concept. A mutual fund investor owns a share of common stock issued by a company that invests in debt or equity securities issued by other operating companies. Like operating companies, a mutual fund distinguishes itself by its business objective—for example, to exceed the Standard & Poor’s 500 Index (an equity fund), to match the Lehman Brothers Aggregate Bond Index (a bond fund), or to maintain a current net asset value of $1.00 per share (a money market fund). Unlike an operating company that is managed by its officers and employees, most mutual funds are managed by an external investment adviser, pursuant to a contract. In recognition of the obvious conflict of interest between a mutual fund and its investment adviser because of or resulting from that contract, the Investment Company Act of 1940 (“Investment Company Act”) has always required that at least forty percent of the members of the mutual fund’s board of directors be independent. In July 2004, the Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC” or “Commission”), in a three-to-two vote, amended certain existing exemptive rules (the “Corporate Governance Amendments”) to require that no less than seventy-five percent of the members of a mutual fund’s board of directors be independent, that the chairman of the board of directors be an independent director, and that the board of directors engage in certain specific corporate governance practices. This Article will argue that the Commission’s decision to adopt the Corporate Governance Amendments was without statutory authority and usurped the proper legislative role of Congress, was not adequately justified, and will be of questionable efficacy

A small RNA regulates RpoS in the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi

We have identified and characterized the first sRNA, DsrABb, in the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi; as well as, identified a non-canonical RNA chaperone Hfq. The alternative sigma factor RpoS (sigma 38 or sigma S) plays a central role in the reciprocal regulation of the virulence-associated major outer surface proteins OspC and OspA. Temperature is one of the key environmental signals controlling RpoS, but the molecular mechanism by which the signal is transduced remains unknown. DsrABb post-transcriptionally regulates the alternative sigma factor RpoS in response to an increase in temperature, associated with the tick to mammal transmission signal. A novel 5\u27 end of the rpoS mRNA was identified and DsrABb has the potential of extensively base-pairing with the upstream region of this rpoS transcript. We demonstrate that B. burgdorferi strains lacking DsrABb do not upregulate RpoS and OspC in response to an increase in temperature, but do regulate RpoS and OspC in response to changes in pH and cell density. The 5\u27 and 3\u27 ends of DsrABb were mapped, demonstrating that at least four species exist with sizes ranging from 213 to 352 nucleotides. We demonstrate and characterize in vitro the interaction between DsrA and upstream region of rpoS mRNA. We hypothesize that DsrABb binds to the upstream region of the rpoS mRNA and stimulates translation by releasing the Shine-Dalgarno sequence and start site from a stable secondary structure. Therefore, we postulate that DsrABb is a molecular thermometer regulating RpoS in Borrelia burgdorferi

The Livestock Economy of Pakistan: An Agricultural Sector Model Approach

The Pakistan Agricultural Sector Model (PASM) developed by Davies et al. (1991) was modified to enhance the livestock sub-sector. Nutrient-based rations replaced feedstuff-based rations and dry matter minimum and maximum constraints (stomach capacity) were added. Several initial simulations were undertaken to examine the structure of the modified model and its impact across the crop and livestock sub-sectors. These simulations included relaxing exogenous livestock numbers and selected crop hectarage constraints, and requiring that green forage be fed in the season grown. Most importantly, the results demonstrated that fodder hectarage will grow with livestock numbers to insure that sufficient green forage is available seasonally. Two other analyses were performed to demonstrate the need to specify linkages between the crop and livestock sub-sectors. An analysis of transforming the livestock sub-sector from traditional to feedlot-based technology demonstrated that the reduced numbers of non-milking cattle needed for a given output of meat would provide the potential for increased production of various crops and other livestock products. Also, expanded cotton and Irri rice exports, hypothesised to occur through trade liberalisation from the Uruguay Round of the GATT, highlighted other inter-relationships between the crop and livestock sub-sectors. Greater production of both livestock and other crops might accompany the expansion of cotton production but less livestock feed would be available with expanded exports of Irri rice.