Navigating towards environmental impact assessment of shipping

The shipping sector exert multiple pressures on the environment, affecting climate change, human health and the marine environment. From a policy perspective, shipping is usually assessed based on the emissions to air (e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur and nitrogen oxides (SOX and NOX) and particles) with the focus on limiting impact on climate and human health. Shipping is generally not considered as a main contributor of other hazardous substances to the marine environment. At the same time, none of the Baltic Sea basins has achieved Good Environmental Status in accordance with the Marine Strategy Framework Directive goals. Therefore, this thesis aims to lay the foundations to enable environmental impact assessment of the shipping sector, following the DAPSIR approach. DAPSIR connects society, environment and policy within a structured framework where for example; Driver can be human needs, Activity is the shipping sector, Pressures are contaminants that enter the environment which may change the environmental State that result in Impact on both the environment (e.g. biodiversity loss) and human welfare. Finally, Responses represent the actions needed to reduce adverse effects.One objective within this work is to quantify the contaminant loads of metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), from different ship-activities with a focus on scrubbers. A scrubber is installed on ships as an abatement technique to meet the requirements stated in the new regulations of sulphur content in marine fuels. In a scrubber, the ship exhausts are led through a spray of water and SOX is easily dissolved and particles are scavenged. The scrubber system can be open (where seawater is pumped through the system continuously), closed (where water is recirculated with a small bleed-off) or hybrid (where the mode of operation can be shifted between open and closed). The scrubber technique has moved the emissions from air to water with unknown impacts. Emission factors of metals and PAHs from usage of marine gas oils (MGOs) and heavy fuel oils (HFOs), with and without the use of scrubbers, where derived from an extensive literature review. The results show that HFO combustion with a scrubber result in much higher emission factors of metals and PAHs as compared to the use of MGO. These emission factors were then used to determine the relative load contribution from scrubbers compared to other ship-activities, coastal industries, atmospheric deposition and riverine input to the Baltic Sea. The comparison revealed that open loop scrubber discharge and release of biocides from antifouling paints are the two largest anthropogenic sources of several metals and PAHs, e.g. copper, vanadium and anthracene, to the Baltic Sea. In addition, the cumulative environmental risk assessment of 9 metals and 16 PAHs from near-ship atmospheric deposition, antifouling paint, bilge water discharge, closed and open loop scrubber water discharge) show unacceptable risk in three out of four ports. The total contaminant load from shipping and subsequent risks of adverse effects on the marine environment can be assessed with existing tools. The use of HFO and scrubbers result in high emissions, in absolute and relative terms, of metals and PAHs to both air and water. The result suggests that the use of scrubbers cannot offer a sustainable solution and the discharge of scrubber water should be prohibited to increase the probability of achieving Good Environmental Status in the Baltic Sea

Arsenic in sediment - an environmental quality standard overview

The overall aim of the proposed report was to develop an Environmental Quality Standard overview for arsenic in marine and freshwater sediments, including to propose threshold values of arsenic in these two compartments. In addition, the proposed threshold values were compared to measured arsenic concentrations from Swedish monitoring data in freshwater and marine sediments

Zinc in sediment - an environmental quality standard overview

The overall aim of the proposed report was to develop an Environmental Quality Standard overview for zinc in marine and freshwater sediments, including to propose threshold values of zinc in these two compartments. In addition, the proposed threshold values were compared to measured zinc concentrations from monitoring data in freshwater and marine sediments

Copper as a HELCOM core indicator

Part 1: Sources, environmental concentrations and state assessments in the Baltic SeaPart 2: EQS derivation for copper in sedimen

Comparing emissions of polyaromatic hydrocarbons and metals from marine fuels and scrubbers

In January 2020, new global regulations were implemented to limit the maximum sulphur content in marine fuels. As an alternative to switch to compliant fuels, the regulations allow for installations of exhaust gas cleaning systems, e.g. scrubbers, that enables a continued use of less expensive heavy fuel oils (HFOs). Characterization of scrubber discharge water shows that the acidified water also becomes enriched with contaminants, and large quantities of metals and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are thus being discharged directly to the marine environment. When emissions of contaminants to the atmosphere and the marine environment are evaluated simultaneously, the results show that HFO, with scrubbers installed, generates higher emission factors of both metals and PAHs compared to MGO. This highlights the importance of including both the marine and the atmospheric perspective when comparing environmental loads and impact of contaminants from shipping

Impacts of exhaust gas cleaning systems (EGCS) discharge waters on planktonic biological indicators

Exhaust Gas Cleaning Systems (EGCS), operating in open-loop mode, continuously release acidic effluents (scrubber waters) to marine waters. Furthermore, scrubber waters contain high concentrations of metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and alkylated PAHs, potentially affecting the plankton in the receiving waters. Toxicity tests evidenced significant impairments in planktonic indicators after acute, early-life stage, and long-term exposures to scrubber water produced by a vessel operating with high sulphur fuel. Acute effects on bacterial bioluminescence (Aliivibrio fischeri), algal growth (Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Dunaliella tertiolecta), and copepod survival (Acartia tonsa) were evident at 10 % and 20 % scrubber water, while larval development in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) showed a 50 % reduction at ∼5 % scrubber water. Conversely, larval development and reproductive success of A. tonsa were severely affected at scrubber water concentrations ≤1.1 %, indicating the risk of severe impacts on copepod populations which in turn may result in impairment of the whole food web

Tankreng\uf6ring och dess p\ue5verkan p\ue5 havsmilj\uf6n

Varje \ue5r trafikeras haven runt Sverige av tankfartyg som tillsammans transporterar hundratals miljoner ton flytande kemiska \ue4mnen och produkter i bulk. N\ue4r fartyg transporterar olika typer av kemikalier m\ue5ste tankarna reng\uf6ras efter lossning, innan den nya produkten lastas. M\ue5let med denna f\uf6rstudie var att belysa tankreng\uf6ring ur ett havsmilj\uf6perspektiv samt redog\uf6ra f\uf6r g\ue4llande regelverk. Lagliga utsl\ue4pp av tv\ue4ttvatten och kemikalier fr\ue5n operationell tankreng\uf6ring av fartyg ger upphov till \uf6kad belastning p\ue5 havsmilj\uf6n och de organismer som lever d\ue4r. Det finns idag ingen statistik \uf6ver var och n\ue4r tankreng\uf6ring utf\uf6rs i svenska havsomr\ue5den, men utifr\ue5n observationer fr\ue5n flyg- och satellit\uf6vervakning till havs, samt trafikintensitet avtankfartyg utifr\ue5n AIS-data, kan vissa omr\ue5den utpekas som sannolika omr\ue5den f\uf6r utsl\ue4pp. Flera av dessa omr\ue5den angr\ue4nsar eller \uf6verlappar med utpekade skyddsv\ue4rda omr\ue5den, exempelvis enligt Natura 2000.Dagens regelverk, huvudsakligen inom IMO MARPOL Annex II, r\uf6rade utsl\ue4pp av tankreng\uf6ringsrester \ue4r sn\ue5riga och l\ue4mnar utrymme f\uf6r olika tolkningar. Dessutom saknas samlad statistik \uf6ver s\ue5v\ue4l vilka substanser som lastas och lossas i Sverige. Den statistik som finns att tillg\ue5 inneh\ue5ller ofta felaktigheter vilket bidrar till stora os\ue4kerheter i m\uf6jliga bed\uf6mning av effekter i havsmilj\uf6n till f\uf6ljd av tankreng\uf6ring. Idag \ue4r det ytterst f\ue5 av de \ue4mnen som transporteras i flytande bulk, som med s\ue4kerhet kan klassificeras som totalt ofarliga. Regelverket b\uf6r d\ue4rf\uf6r ses \uf6ver och i brist p\ue5 tillf\uf6rlitlig statistik och vetenskapliga utv\ue4rderingar, b\uf6r samtliga \ue4mnen som sl\ue4pps ut i samband med tankreng\uf6ring klassificeras som farliga \ue4mnen. Det r\ue5der konsensus inom HELCOM om att belastningen p\ue5 havsmilj\uf6n med avseende p\ue5 farliga \ue4mnen i 6stersj\uf6n m\ue5ste minska, vilket styrker argument f\uf6r att till\ue4mpa f\uf6rsiktighetsprincipen och \uf6verv\ue4ga f\uf6rbud av utsl\ue4pp fr\ue5n tankreng\uf6ring till havs. Det finns olika avancerade procedurer f\uf6r tankreng\uf6ring f\uf6r att minska restvolymen i tankarna. I enlighet med tidigare publicerade resultat finns det stor f\uf6rb\ue4ttringspotential avseende att minska koncentrationen av giftiga \ue4mnen i milj\uf6n, genom att se \uf6ver krav p\ue5 ut\uf6kad till\ue4mpning av state-of-the art reng\uf6ringsprocedurer.F\uf6r att minska p\ue5verkan p\ue5 havsmilj\uf6n fr\ue5n tankreng\uf6ring, samt sj\uf6fartens milj\uf6p\ue5verkan i allm\ue4nhet, kr\ue4vs \uf6kad samverkan mellan ber\uf6rda transport- respektive milj\uf6f\uf6rvaltande myndigheter och \uf6vriga akt\uf6rer s\ue5 som hamnar, fartygsoperat\uf6rer och industrier. \uc4ven om det redan finns mycket samarbete inom exempelvis havsmilj\uf6f\uf6rvaltning, brister det f\uf6r sj\uf6fartsfr\ue5gor i harmoniseringen mellan de \uf6vergripande regelverken f\uf6r fartygen och de milj\uf6m\ue5lsdirektiv som formuleras av f\uf6rvaltningssidan

Cumulative environmental risk assessment of metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from ship activities in ports

Marine environmental risk assessments rarely consider the cumulative risk from multiple contaminants and sources. Ships give rise to a range of contaminants, originating from different onboard sources, resulting in contaminant loads to the marine environment. Here, the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM), in combination with the hydrodynamic and chemical fate model MAMPEC, was used to calculate loads and predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) of metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in four ports. PECs were compared to the predicted no effect concentrations (PNEC) to assess environmental risk from the different onboard sources, both separately and cumulatively. The results show that three out of four ports were subject to unacceptable risk. This study highlights the importance of accounting for multiple contaminant sources when assessing the marine environmental risks of shipping and challenges the suitability of the proposed new international guidelines on how to assess risk of scrubber water discharge

Metal and PAH loads from ships and boats, relative other sources, in the Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is a sensitive environment that is affected by chemical pollution derived from multiple natural and anthropogenic sources. The overall aim of this study was to estimate the load of metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from shipping and leisure boating, relative other sources, to the Baltic Sea and to identify possible measures that could lead to major reductions in the loads of hazardous substances from maritime shipping and leisure boating. The use of copper-based antifouling paints, and operation of scrubbers in open loop mode, were the two most dominant identified sources of hazardous substances to the Baltic Sea. Open loop scrubbers accounted for 8.5 % of the total input of anthracene to the sea. More than a third of the total load of copper can be reduced if copper-free antifouling paints or other biocide-free antifouling strategies are used on ships and leisure boats