Artesãos, cartografia e império. A produção social de um instrumento náutico no mundo ibérico, 1500-1650

Explicar cómo y en qué condiciones fueron construidos algunos de los instrumentos científicos más emblemáticos del mundo moderno sigue siendo un desafío para los historiadores de la ciencia y de la tecnología. Este principio afecta también a los instrumentos náuticos. Así, el objetivo del presente artículo es considerar el “cómo” y el “en qué condiciones”, en un sentido amplio, analizando uno de estos artefactos: las cartas náuticas construidas durante la expansión marítima europea. Originalidad: La originalidad del texto no reside únicamente en llevar a cabo una reconstrucción de este instrumento en Portugal y España que aporte nuevos datos sobre su proceso de fabricación y sus fabricantes, sino también en arrojar luz sobre antiguos debates historiográficos que subyacen a la génesis de la ciencia moderna, tales como la difícil colaboración entre hombres prácticos y hombres teóricos; la aportación de comunidades de artesanos al mundo del conocimiento; el papel que los saberes prácticos tuvieron en el establecimiento de nuevas formas de estandarización en ciencia; la adopción de una metodología empírica para el dominio del mundo o la construcción de grandes imperios globales cimentados sobre la base del trabajo manual. Metodología: El análisis de estos debates requiere una aproximación metodológica que atienda a las categorías y los conceptos principales puestos en circulación tanto por la historia como por la filosofía de la ciencia más reciente. En definitiva, se trata de atender a las condiciones que permitieron el establecimiento de acuerdos (y también de controversias) epistemológicos entre diferentes comunidades de conocimiento tomando un instrumento náutico como “mediador”. Conclusiones: El artículo concluye que la consideración de las culturas empíricas del conocimiento y sus realizaciones materiales son una condición sine qua non para entender la génesis de la modernidad científica europea y la construcción de un mundo globalExplaining how and under what conditions some of the most emblematic scientific instruments of the modern world were built remains a challenge for historians of science and technology. This principle also affects nautical instruments. Thus, the objective of this article is to consider the “how” and the “under what conditions”, in a broad sense, by examining one of these devices: the nautical charts developed during the European maritime expansion. Originality: The originality of this article lies not only in the reconstruction of this instrument in Portugal and Spain, providing new information about its development process and its manufacturers, but also in shedding light on old historiographical debates that underlie the genesis of modern science, such as the difficult collaboration between practical men and theoretical men; the contribution of artisan communities to the world of knowledge; the role that practical knowledge played in the establishment of new forms of standardization in science; the adoption of an empirical methodology for achieving mastery of the world or the construction of large global empires founded upon manual labor. Methodology: Analyzing these debates requires a methodological approach that addresses the main categories and concepts put into circulation by the most recent history and philosophy of science. In short, unveiling the conditions that enabled the establishment of epistemological agreements (and also disputes) between different knowledge communities by taking a nautical instrument as “mediator.” Conclusions: The article concludes that examining empirical knowledge cultures and their material achievements are a sine qua non condition to understand the genesis of European scientific modernity and the construction of a global worldExplicar como e em que condições foram construídos alguns dos instrumentos científicos mais emblemáticos do mundo moderno continua sendo um desafio para os historiadores da ciência e da tecnologia. Esse princípio afeta também os instrumentos náuticos. Assim, o objetivo do presente artigo é considerar o “como” e o “em que condições”, em um sentido amplo, e analisar um desses artefatos: as cartas náuticas construídas durante a expansão marítima europeia. Originalidade: A originalidade do texto não reside unicamente na realização de uma reconstrução desse instrumento em Portugal e na Espanha de forma que traga novos dados sobre seu processo de fabricação e de seus fabricantes, mas também em lançar luz sobre antigos debates historiográficos que subjazem à gênese da ciência moderna, tais como a difícil colaboração entre homens práticos e homens teóricos, a contribuição de comunidades de artesãos ao mundo do conhecimento; o papel que os saberes práticos tiveram no estabelecimento de novas formas de padronização na ciência, a adoção de uma metodologia empírica para o domínio do mundo ou a construção de grandes impérios globais cimentados sobre a base do trabalho manual. Metodologia: A análise desses debates requer uma aproximação metodológica que atenda às categorias e aos principais conceitos colocados em circulação tanto pela história quanto pela filosofia da ciência mais recente. Definitivamente, trata-se de atender às condições que permitiram o estabelecimento de acordos (e também de controvérsias) epistemológicos entre diferentes comunidades de conhecimento tomando o instrumento náutico como “mediador”. Conclusões: O artigo conclui que a consideração das culturas empíricas do conhecimento e suas realizações materiais são uma condição sine qua non para entender a gênese da modernidade científica europeia e a construção de um mundo globa

End-to-side loop neurorrhaphy: axonal comparative stereological study

Accidents or diseases can affect the peripheral part of the nervous system, which raises clinical and surgical therapies, among others. In this context, the technique of end-to-side neurorrhaphy is a treatment option, yet its modification loop needs some additional efficacy studies. The purpose of this study was to compare, among rats, stereological results (axons volume density) after end-to-side neurorrhaphy and after end-to-side loop neurorrhaphy. Thirty Wistar rats were used, divided into six groups (five animals per group), consisting of two control groups (for the fibular and tibial nerves), two study groups for the fibular nerve (one with an end-to-side neurorrhaphy, and the other with an end-to-side loop neurorrhaphy) and two study groups for the tibial nerve (with an endto- side neurorrhaphy and the other one with an end-to-side loop neurorrhaphy). After 180 days, all groups were sacrificed for axonal stereological analysis (volume density) in distal nerve stumps. There was significant maintenance of neuronal-axonal density in the distal stumps to neurorrhaphy (p< 0.005) compared with the normal stumps. The end-to-side loop neurorrhaphy is a therapeutic option as suture technique after complete nerve section, in order to restore most of the axonal functional integrity

The cognitive reserve theory in the setting of pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis

Background: The study of cognitive reserve (CR) in relationship with cognitive impairment (CI) in pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis (POMS) may provide cues to identifying subjects at higher risk of impairment and scope for therapeutic strategies. Objectives: To assess the potential impact of CR on cognition in a cohort of POMS patients. Methods: In all, 48 POMS patients were followed up for 4.7 ± 0.4 years. CI was defined as the failure of ≥3 tests on an extensive neuropsychological battery. Change of neuropsychological performance was assessed through the Reliable Change Index (RCI) method. At baseline, CR was estimated by measuring the intelligence quotient (IQ). The relationships were assessed through multivariable regression analyses. Results: At baseline, CI was detected in 14/48 (29.2%) patients. Two out of 57 healthy control (HC; 3.5%) met the same criteria of CI (p < 0.001). A deteriorating cognitive performance using the RCI method was observed in 18/48 patients (37.6%). Among the 34 cases who were cognitively preserved at baseline, a higher reserve predicted stable/improving performance (odds ratio (OR) = 1.11; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03-1.20; p = 0.006). Conclusion: Our results suggest that higher CR in POMS patients may protect from CI, particularly in subjects with initial cognitive preservation, providing relevant implications for counseling and rehabilitation strategies