Back analysis of the 2014 San Leo Landslide using combined terrestrial laser scanning and 3D distinct element modelling

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Springer Verlag via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00603-015-0763-5© 2015 Springer-Verlag Wien Landslides of the lateral spreading type, involving brittle geological units overlying ductile terrains, are a common occurrence in the sandstone and limestone plateaux of the northern Apennines of Italy. The edges of these plateaux are often the location of rapid landslide phenomena, such as rock slides, rock falls and topples. In this paper, we present a back analysis of a recent landslide (February 2014), involving the north-eastern sector of the San Leo rock slab (northern Apennines, Emilia-Romagna Region) which is a representative example of this type of phenomena. The aquifer hosted in the fractured slab, due to its relatively higher secondary permeability in comparison to the lower clayey units leads to the development of perennial and ephemeral springs at the contact between the two units. The related piping erosion phenomena, together with slope processes in the clay-shales have led to the progressive undermining of the slab, eventually predisposing large-scale landslides. Stability analyses were conducted coupling terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and distinct element methods (DEMs). TLS point clouds were analysed to determine the pre- and post-failure geometry, the extension of the detachment area and the joint network characteristics. The block dimensions in the landslide deposit were mapped and used to infer the spacing of the discontinuities for insertion into the numerical model. Three-dimensional distinct element simulations were conducted, with and without undermining of the rock slab. The analyses allowed an assessment of the role of the undermining, together with the presence of an almost vertical joint set, striking sub-parallel to the cliff orientation, on the development of the slope instability processes. Based on the TLS and on the numerical simulation results, an interpretation of the landslide mechanism is proposed

Authigenic seep-carbonates cementing coarse-grained deposits in a fan-delta depositional system (middle Miocene, Marnoso-arenacea Formation, central Italy).

Outer shelf cracks and elongated gas blow out features have been first discovered along a 40 km long section of the U.S. Atlantic margin. Her, individual cracks are several km long, 1km wide and up to 50 m deep (Driscoll et al., 2000, Hill et al., 2004). The cracks and depressions seem to be caused by "gas blow outs" related to the release of shallow trapped gas. The precise age of the blowouts and the origin of the gas remains unknown, but post-LGM formation of the blowout features suggest that ocean warming triggered methane hydrate dissociation processes.The fact, that the gas hydrate outcrop zones of the largest gas hydrate provinces in Europe are on the Norwegian-Barents-Svalbard (NBS) margin makes the U.S. Atlantic margin - Norwegian Atlantic margin reaction of potential gas hydrates fields to post- Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) climate conditions particularly important for studies of submarine slope failures, i.e. geohazards. The NBS margin is not only an important gas hydrate province but also an area where numerous seeps are documented, and we thus know that there is gas migration in the sediments. In particular the area, where the theoretical outcrop zone of the base of the gas hydrate stability zone (BGHS) and the geophysical evidence as a bottom simulating reflector (BSR) lies, we observe outer shelf cracking, gas blow outs, shallow faulting and fluid escape features such as pockmarks in sediments. Our presentation will draw attention (1) to a system of cracks associated with high pockmark density "gas blowout" features along the northern extension of the giant and retrogressive Storegga slide on the Mid-Norwegian Margin and (2) to a system of potential large blowout features and shallow faults influencing slope failures on the W-Svalbard margin. On the Mid-Norwegian margin a 50 km long and up to 3 km wide zone of approx. 10 m deep depressions occur. They line up with the northern edge of the Storegga headwall elongating in N-S direction. Within the uncertainty of the BGHS modelling the approx. 50 ms TWT cracking zone corresponds well to the belt of the BGHS outcrops, where they intersect the upper continental slope. Radiocarbon age dating of the cracking reveals the same age on the main crack as the Storegga Slide event, but due to the 14C dating uncertainties it remains unknown whether the cracking predates, occurs at the same time, or postdates the Holocene giant submarine sliding event. The cracks are associated with fluid escape indicated by pockmarks typically 50-300 m in diameter and 1-5 m deep. On the W-Svalbard margin outer shelf post-LGM faulting and large depressions occur. The depressions have a diameter of 6 -10 km and a depth of up to 100 m but also smaller depressions (<20m) exist. The presented post-LGM formation of cracks, faults and gas blow out features along U.S. and Norwegian Atlantic margin outer shelf areas may be the result of a time dependent response of ocean clathrate reservoirs to climate change and therefore a "climate induced geohazard"

San Leo: Centuries of Coexistence with Landslides

The ancient fortified city of San Leo is built on a limestone plateau. The rock slab is tectonized and crossed by several families of joints and faults, while the underlying foundation of the rocky cliff is composed of gentle clay slopes, modelled in the so-called \u201cArgille Scagliose\u201d geological units. The differential weathering of the upper rock formation with respect to the ductile clays has produced ledges and overhangs on the cliff face. Furthermore, weathering and/or movement of the underlying clays has caused the opening and widening of vertical fractures in the brittle limestone rock masses, diffused over the entire rock mass. The evolution of plastic movements (slides and flows) in the underlying clay units might undermine the limestone slab and endanger the stability of the rocky cliff, thus posing risk to the fortified city of San Leo and its notable cultural heritage. In this paper, historical and recent slope instability events are described, on the basis of historical documents and modern investigations

High-Resolution Studies of Mass Transport Deposits: Outcrop Perspective for Understanding Modern Submarine Slope Failure and Associated Natural Hazards

Micro- to meso-scale outcrop studies on selected field analogues allow direct calibration and testing of geophysical interpretations performed on mass transport deposits in modern continental margins, in terms of genetic processes and sliding dynamics. This comparative approach provides important information for forecasting and mitigating submarine landslide-related geohazards. The comparison of fieldwork studies (i.e., siliciclastic, carbonate and mixed, seismic-scale Eocene-Oligocene submarine mass transport deposits of the Northern Apennines in Italy, central Pyrenees in Spain and the north-western Dinarides in Italy/Slovenia) with multibeam bathymetric, seismic and drill core data from some modern analogues (i.e., offshore of New Zealand, Japan and Svalbard in Arctic Norway) is proposed in order to upscale the outcrop observations and downscale the geophysical features. Our results show that slide mass mobility is a function of the degree of internal liquefaction/fluidization, mainly achieved at the basal sliding interval and within the slide body. This is due to undrained shearing/loading-unloading of poorly-lithified sediments, and consequent development of fluid overpressure that is able to accommodate deformations at high strain rates. Structures related to these processes are observable at all scales, and represent diagnostic criteria to recognize potentially catastrophic mass transport events

Sedimentary Melanges and Fossil Mass-Transport Complexes: A Key for Better Understanding Submarine Mass Movements?

Mélanges originated from sedimentary processes (sedimentary mélanges) and olistostromes are frequently present in mountain chains worldwide. They are excellent fossil examples of mass- Transport complexes (MTC), often cropping out in well-preserved and laterally continuous exposures. In this article we will show the results of the integrated study of fossil MTCs, including sedimentary mélanges/ olistostromes, with a focus on the Apennines of Italy. Fossil MTCs, especially the basin-wide ones, are composite and multi-event units involving the entire spectra of mass- Transport processes. The down-slope motion of these bodies is enabled by the relative movement of discrete masses, with progressive stratal disruption of rocks/sediment involved and flow transformation. Three kinds of MTC are here distinguished, in which the movements are enabled by (1) shear-dominated viscous flows within a muddy matrix, (2) mud-silt-sandy matrix sustained by fluid overpressure, (3) concentrated shear zones/surfaces with advection of grains and fluid (overpressured basal carpets). These MTC types may represent end-members of a continuum of products and correspond to different kinematics of transport and emplacement and to different relationship with the substratum. These observations should result in a better knowledge of mass- Transport processes and bodies, in relation with the basin floor geometries. © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012