Could energy equilibrium and greenhouse gas emissions in agroecosystems play a key role in crop replacement? A case study in orange and kiwi orchards

The development of agriculture is linked to energy resources. Consequently, energy analysis in agroecosystems could be a useful tool for monitoring some measures in the agricultural sector to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. The objectives of this study were to (a) evaluate differences of energy indices in orange and kiwi orchards, and (b) point out whether inputs, outputs, efficiency, productivity, and carbon footprint can play a key role in crop replacement. Proportional stratified random sampling was used to select 26 orchards (10 oranges, 16 kiwis) from the Prefecture of Arta, western Greece, during 2015 and 2016. Univariate statistical methods were combined with multivariate ones. Nitrogen, Mg, Zn, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, renewable energy inputs, fruit production, total outputs, and energy efficiency and productivity were statistically significantly high in the orange orchards. Phosphorus, Ca, irrigation, machinery, total inputs, intensity, non-renewable energy consumption, and carbon footprint were statistically significantly high in the kiwi orchards. The most important energy inputs for both fruit crops were fertilizers, fuels, irrigation, machinery, and herbicides. The orange orchards seem to be more friendly to the environment than the kiwi orchards by having low total energy inputs 32,210.3 MJ ha−1, intensity 1.4, consumption of non-renewable energy 0.7 MJ kg−1 and CO2 equivalent/fruit production 0.08 kg kg−1, and high energy outputs 105,120.0 MJ ha−1 and fruit production 53,648.0 kg ha−1. The findings of the present study show a relation between climate change and the production of farming systems, which can be a tool for decision makers. The correlation of the above-mentioned parameters ensure higher profits and could help in achieving the best possible sustainable management of the agricultural ecosystems

Environmental Impact Assessment for Animal Waste, Organic and Synthetic Fertilizers

The use of fertilizers is of the utmost importance for food security on a global scale. However, fertilizer production and overuse may yield environmental issues. In this research, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was used to estimate eighteen environmental impact categories for six different fertilizer products: three synthetic (ammonium nitrate; calcium ammonium nitrate; and urea ammonium nitrate) and three organic (cattle manure; compost; and a mixture of compost and synthetic fertilizer). The processes for fertilizer production were obtained from the Agribalyse database. The system boundaries were from cradle to factory gate (or farm gate in the case of animal waste), and the impact indicators were calculated per kg of nitrogen (N). The data showed that the organo-mineral fertilizer (a mix of compost and synthetic fertilizer) had the highest environmental impact according to the results for most of the impact categories. The median values for this product regarding water consumption, fossil resource use and global warming potential were 322.5 L, 3.82 kg oil equivalent and 13.70 kg CO2 equivalent, respectively, per kg of N. The respective values for cattle manure, for which the lowest environmental impact was observed, were 0.23 L of water, 0.002 kg oil-eq and 3.29 kg of CO2-eq, respectively, per kg of N. Further research should focus on the determination of the impact from other stages of the life cycle (e.g., transportation and application to the field) which were not included in this work. This research could support the selection of N fertilizer in sustainable food production

Study of the dispersion of the veterinary pharmaceutical eprinomectin (B1a) in the environment

There are limited data for the dispersion and analytical determination of eprinomectin (EPM) in the environment. The aims of the current study were: 1) analytical method development and validation for EPM in soil, bovine feces and water and 2) study the EPM environmental dispersion and fate. For the analytical methods development the techniques of HPLC with fluorescent detection were applied. The results of the validation showed that the analytical methods are sufficient for the detection and quantification of EPM in soils, feces and water; recovery was >85% and the limits of detection - quantification were in the ppb level. The adsorption - desorption distribution coefficients Kdads and Kddes determined after the application of the protocol OECD 106 in three soils ranged 7.7 - 26.9 L/kg και 31 - 129.1 L/kg, respectively. The protocol OECD 312 was used for the EPM transport in soil. EPM was not detected in drainage water collected in the experiments after applying extreme amount of irrigation water (=645.7 mm) in 30 days. An amount 13.8 - 18% (11,2-16,9 μg/kg d.w.) of the 10 μg initially applied EPM in the column surface was recovered in the 0-1 cm soil depth. Another 53.3 - 73% (12.9 – 18.2 μg/kg d.w.) was recovered in the 1-5 cm soil depth. The results of the experiments with the OECD 307 protocol showed that EPM is resistant to dissipation in soil under anaerobic conditions (DT50>600 days) as well as under aerobic conditions (DT50>50 days). Dissipation in three soils under aerobic conditions was well described using simple first order kinetics (SFO), after fitting our data to this model. The biphasic Hokey-Stick model (HS) efficiently described EPM dissipation in the same soils under anaerobic conditions. The drug also resist dissipation in cattle manure (DT50 1 year) after following the recently developed EMEA guideline. The biphasic Gustafson-Holden efficiently described the fitted dissipation experimental data. The predicted environmental concentration (PEC) according to the relative EMEA guidelines were found 1.4 - 2.91 μg/kg soil d.w., ranging after bovine age and husbandry practices, while PEC in surface and ground water was 3 - 520 ng/L (ppt). Assuming that Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) are applied, the risk quotient (RQ) coming from these values shows that the risk for the Daphnia in pasture wetlands is unacceptable. The lack of certain ecotoxicological data e.g. phytoplankton, soil and sediment invertebrates, plants, bioconcentration in fish and birds, makes the environmental assessment for EPM inefficient.Ελάχιστα δεδομένα υπάρχουν για την τύχη της επρινομεκτίνης (ΕΠΜ) στο περιβάλλον. Οι στόχοι της έρευνας ήταν η ανάπτυξη αναλυτικής μεθόδου για τον ποσοτικό προσδιορισμό της ΕΠΜ στο έδαφος, στην κοπριά των βοοειδών και στο νερό και η μελέτη της διασποράς της ΕΠΜ στο περιβάλλον. Για τον αναλυτικό προσδιορισμό της ΕΠΜ χρησιμοποιήθηκε η υγρή χρωματογραφία υψηλής πίεσης με ανιχνευτή φθορισμού. Τα όρια ανίχνευσης της ΕΠΜ στο έδαφος, στην κοπριά και στο νερό ήταν της τάξης των ppb και η ανάκτηση >85% στα υλικά αυτά. Για τη μελέτη της διασποράς της ΕΠΜ στο περιβάλλον χρησιμοποιήθηκαν οι οδηγίες της ΕΜΕΑ. Οι συντελεστές κατανομής της ΕΠΜ Kdads και Kddes που προέκυψαν από την εφαρμογή του πρωτοκόλλου OECD 106 για τρεις τύπους εδαφών παρουσίασαν εύρος τιμών 7,7 - 26,9 L/kg και 31 - 129,1 L/kg, αντίστοιχα. Το πρωτόκολλο OECD 312 εφαρμόστηκε για τη μελέτη της μετακίνησης της ΕΠΜ σε εδαφικές στήλες. H ΕΠΜ δεν εντοπίστηκε στο έκπλυμα, μετά από εφαρμογή ακραίας ποσότητας άρδευσης. Ποσοστό 13,8 - 18 % (11,2-16,9 μg/kg ξ.β.) των 10 μg της ΕΠΜ, τα οποία προστέθηκαν στην αρχή του πειράματος, παρέμειναν στην εδαφική στρώση 0–1 cm, ενώ 53,3 - 73% της ΕΠΜ (12,9 - 18,2 μg/kg ξ.β.) συγκεντρώθηκε στη στρώση 1–5 cm και στα τρία εδάφη που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν στον πειραματισμό. Όπως προέκυψε από τα αποτελέσματα του πειραματισμού με το πρωτόκολλο OECD 307, η ΕΠΜ είναι εξαιρετικά ανθεκτική στη διάσπαση όταν οι συνθήκες στο έδαφος είναι αναερόβιες (DT50>600 ημέρες). Επίσης, είναι ανθεκτική στη διάσπαση υπό αερόβιες συνθήκες (DT50>50 ημέρες, 21 οC). Η μείωση της συγκέντρωσης της ΕΠΜ υπό αερόβιες συνθήκες στα τρία εδάφη που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν περιγράφεται ικανοποιητικά από το μοντέλο της κινητικής πρώτης τάξης (SFO), μετά από προσαρμογή των δεδομένων μας σε αυτό, ενώ αντίθετα το μοντέλο Hokey-stick (HS) περιγράφει ικανοποιητικά τη μείωση της συγκέντρωσης στα ίδια εδάφη, υπό αναερόβιες συνθήκες. Η ΕΠΜ είναι επίσης εξαιρετικά ανθεκτική στη διάσπαση στην κοπριά (DT50 1 έτος), υπό αναερόβιες συνθήκες, που περιγράφεται ικανοποιητικά από το μοντέλο Gustafson-Holden (FOMC), μετά από την προσαρμογή των αποτελεσμάτων μας σε αυτό. Οι προβλεπόμενες, με βάση τις οδηγίες της ΕΜΕΑ, συγκεντρώσεις της ΕΠΜ κυμαίνονται από 1,4 έως 2,91 μg EΠM/kg ξηρού εδάφους, ανάλογα με την ηλικία των βοοειδών, την παραγωγική τους κατεύθυνση και τη μέθοδο εκτροφής. Οι αντίστοιχες συγκεντρώσεις στα επιφανειακά και τα υπόγεια νερά κυμαίνονται από 3 - 520 ng ΕΠΜ/L (ppt). Σύμφωνα με τις τιμές αυτές προκύπτει ανεπίτρεπτος κίνδυνος για τα είδη Daphnia στην περίπτωση όπου τα ζώα εκτρέφονται εκτατικά. Παρόλα αυτά, είναι δύσκολο να εξαχθούν συμπεράσματα ως προς περιβαλλοντικές επιπτώσεις της ΕΠΜ λόγω της έλλειψης δεδομένων για την οικοτοξικότητά της. Με βάση τα αποτελέσματα αυτά ο κίνδυνος για το περιβάλλον, από τη χρήση της ΕΠΜ ως παρασιτοκτόνου στα βοοειδή, είναι αρκετά σοβαρός

Determining the Carbon Footprint and Emission Hotspots for the Wine Produced in Cyprus

We also thank Cyprus University of Technology Open Access Author Fund.International agreements and policies on climate change urge for a drastic reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to prevent a temperature rise above 2 C at the end of the century. Determination of the product carbon footprint (CF), identifying carbon hotspots and examining ways for CF reduction is an essential step towards mitigation actions. Viticulture and winemaking are very important for the economy of Mediterranean regions, especially for the sustainability of rural areas. To determine the CF for wine, the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach was adopted with system boundaries from vineyard to market. Input data were collected from 20 vineyards on the island of Cyprus, where the indigenous Xynisteri variety is cultivated and from an SME winery that uses the grapes to produce wine. The winery CF was 99,586 kg CO2-eq for 76,000 bottles produced (1.31 kg/0.75 L bottle). The uncertainty factor was determined to be 50%, which was considered adequate for the methodology followed. The share of electrical energy was 46%, of packaging 18% and of the vineyard 16%. Fuel (transportation and heating), as well as waste management (solid and wastewater) contributed 10% each to the CF. There is potential for mitigation of the CF by replacing the bottles currently used by lighter ones, lowering the energy use and reusing a part of the solid waste as fertilizer. Research towards eco-innovation of viticulture/winemaking is essential for reducing the footprint of the sector to promote sustainable wine production

Impacts of climate change on tomato, a notorious pest and its natural enemy: small scale agriculture at higher risk

Climate change (CC) clearly impacts food production, but risks on the climatic suitability of agricultural areas for vegetable crops, their pests and associated natural enemies are largely unexplored. Tomato, one of the most important vegetables in the world, is grown mostly outdoors, and may be severely impacted by CC. Farmers cultivating tomatoes need to adapt to an increase in the potential for outbreaks of pests favoured by CC and disruption of biological control, yet, no attempt has been made to simultaneously evaluate CC effects on a crop-pest-natural enemy system for tomato or any other crop. Here, we modelled the suitability of areas equipped with irrigation facilities (AEI) in 2050 for tomato, the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, a mite pest of tomato among more than 200 crops, and its key predator Phytoseiulus persimilis. We evaluated the suitability of AEI for tomato production under a 1.6 degrees C warming by 2050, within the targets of the Paris agreement. Projections show that climatic conditions become unsuitable for tomato production on 30%-100% of AEI for seven out of the 29 top tomato producing countries of the world. Model predictions suggest that two-spotted spider mite potential for outbreaks would increase substantially in nine countries in Europe, Africa and Asia, while biological control failures would occur globally. Model results have a significant relationship with growth rates for the three species measured in outdoor experiments, and farmer/expert perceptions on two-spotted spider mite outbreak severity captured via interviews. The expansion of AEI in other agricultural areas in the sub-Saharan Africa may offset losses of suitable land. However, several nations in the Middle East and South Asia with prevalent small scale agriculture would experience devastating impacts because of the unsuitability of conditions for tomato production and the potential increase in two-spotted spider mite outbreaks

Water-energy-food nexus: A case study on medicinal and aromatic plants

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) are broadly cultivated in the Mediterranean but their environmental footprint is not very well studied. In this paper, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was applied to determine the energy balance, carbon and water footprints (CF and WF, respectively) in 50 farms, organic and conventional, where four MAP species were cultivated; spearmint (Mentha spicata), oregano (Oreganum vulgare), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and Damask rose (Rosa damascena). The lowest value for energy intensity (EI) was observed for organic spearmint (0.18 MJ/kg fresh weight; f.w.) while the highest for conventional Damask rose (5.80 MJ/kg f.w.). Statistically significant differences were observed in EI between organic and conventional farms for spearmint and Damask rose while no differences were found for oregano and rosemary. The lowest CF was observed for organic rosemary (0.051 kg CO2-eq/kg f.w.) while the highest for conventional Damask rose (0.463 kg CO2-eq/kg f.w.). Statistical differences in the CF between organic and conventional farms for the four species followed the same pattern as for EI. Conventional spearmint had the lowest WF (61.5 L of water/kg f.w.) and organic Damask rose the highest (1522 L of water/kg f.w.). Statistical differences between the two management systems were observed only for Damask rose. The 50 farms were grouped according to the values of three indicators (EI, CF and WF) using cluster analysis. Four clusters were identified with 68% of the farms (34) belonging to the low footprint cluster which contained organic and conventional spearmint, oregano and rosemary farms. The other three clusters contained the (16) Damask rose farms, where the inputs were higher in comparison to the other three species and the highest footprint clusters contained conventional rose farms. Our work suggests that MAPs are viable candidates for the implementation of sustainable agriculture in the Mediterranean

Placing Ecosystem Services within the Water–Food–Energy–Climate Nexus: A Case Study in Mediterranean Mixed Orchards

We used Cyprus as a model to link the Water–Energy–Food–Climate (WEFC) nexus indicators (e.g., carbon and water footprints) to the ecosystem services (ES) provided by 39 mixed orchards (stone fruits and nuts) on organic (Org) and conventional (Conv) farms. Food provision was lower for Org than Conv orchards. Management practices in Org mixed orchards better support climate change mitigation and water flow regulation. Soil quality parameters (e.g., organic matter and soil respiration), Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF), and farm attributes (e.g., tree age) were significantly correlated to the GHG emissions per Mcal of food. Using cluster analysis, orchards were grouped based on WEFC indicators. Finally, a simple approach was developed to allow a rapid link between the WEFC and ES and to support decision making related to land use. This approach highlighted that in the case of Mediterranean mixed orchards, the main objective towards sustainability should be the balance between input management, food production, and ES from agroecosystems, rather than solely the attainment of high yields

Linking management practices and soil properties to Ecosystem Services in Mediterranean mixed orchards

Orchards in insular, mountainous environments provide a range of Ecosystem Services (ES). However, research on the benefits of mixed orchards to ES remains very limited. We use Cyprus as a model to study the ES provided by 52 mixed orchards in Organic (Org) and Conventional (Con) farms. The orchards comprised different tree species including pome and stone fruits, nuts and other crops. A framework was developed to link soil quality parameters, orchard attributes and Agricultural Management Practices (AMPs) to the provision of ES. Cluster analysis based on AMPs, orchard attributes and soil properties separated the orchards into a Con and an Org cluster. There were significant differences in soil quality parameters between Org and Con orchards: aggregate stability (Mean Weight Diameter; MWD mm) (Org: 12.5; Con: 9.3), organic matter content (OM %) (Org: 1.15; Con: 0.92), seed bank (number of species) (Org: 6.6; Con: 3.4), Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF; % of roots colonization) (Org: 31.3; Con: 19.3) and soil respiration (mg CO2/100 g soil dry weight/day) (Org: 36.3; Con: 21.7). Soil types did not differ between the two systems. Using the parameters AMF presence, aggregate stability and organic matter content as proxies for soil biology, physics and chemistry, respectively, we show that Org orchards have a higher potential to provide ES than Con. The results of the study are useful for selecting agricultural management practices to maintain and optimize ES in Mediterranean island mixed orchards

Water quality in irrigation and drainage networks of Thessaloniki plain in Greece related to land use, water management, and agroecosystem protection

A representative agricultural area of 150 ha located in a protected ecosystem (Axios River Delta, Thermaikos Gulf-N. Aegean, Greece) was selected in order to investigate water quality parameters [pH, electrical conductivity (ECw), NO3-N, NH4-N, total phosphorus (TP)] in irrigation and drainage water. In the study area, the cultivated crops are mainly rice, maize, cotton, and fodder. Surface irrigation methods are applied using open channels network, and irrigation water is supplied by Axios River, which is facing pollution problems. The return flow from surface runoff and the surplus of irrigation water are collected to drainage network and disposed to Thermaikos Gulf. A 2-year study (2006-2007) was conducted in order to evaluate the effects of land use and irrigation water management on the drainage water quality. The average pH and NO3-N concentration was higher in the irrigation water (8.0 and 1.3 mg/L, respectively) than that in the drainage water (7.6 and 1.0 mg/L, respectively). The average ECW, NH 4-N, and TP concentration was higher in the drainage water (1,754 μS/cm, 90.3 μg/L, and 0.2 mg/L, respectively) than that in the irrigation water (477.1 μS/cm, 46.7 μg/L, and 0.1 mg/L, respectively). Average irrigation efficiency was estimated at 47% and 51% in 2006 and 2007 growing seasons (April-October), respectively. The loads of NO3-N in both seasons were higher in the irrigation water (35.1 kg/ha in 2006 and 24.9 kg/ha in 2007) than those in the drainage water (8.1 kg/ha in 2006 and 7.6 kg/ha in 2007). The load of TP was higher in the irrigation water in season 2006 (2.8 kg/ha) than that in the drainage water (1.1 kg/ha). Total phosphorus load in 2007 was equal in irrigation and drainage water (1.2 kg/ha). Wetland conditions, due to rice irrigation regime, drainage network characteristics, and the crop distribution in the study area, affect the drainage water ending in the protected ecosystem of Thermaikos Gulf

Effects of land use and irrigation practices on Ca, Mg, K, Na loads in rice-based agricultural systems

Irrigation planning and management is essential in order to preserve agricultural production without affecting the ecosystem functioning by inducing salinity problems. The objective of the study is to assess the mass balance of the major cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+) SAR and ECw values during the growing season (May-October) in a lowland irrigated agricultural area. The selected area (150ha) contained agricultural fields with rice, maize, cotton and fodder crops and is located in the Axios River delta, Thessaloniki plain, Greece. Monitoring was performed for two years (2006-2007) in the irrigation and drainage network of the study area. Higher concentrations of cations and higher values of SAR and ECw were observed in the drainage water compared to the irrigation water, due to leaching and evapo-concentration processes in the fields. Cations mass balance in both seasons was estimated and it was found negative in the study region, due to plant uptake and especially due to salt removal through leaching for approximately 50% irrigation efficiency. Cluster analysis was used to group the sampling sites in the drainage network according to their salinity quality characteristics. According to the cluster analysis results, rice cultivation is the primary influence on drainage water quality in the agricultural land of Axios River Delta