A música como objeto do estudo cientifico: considerações em volta à musicalidade e o origem da música

The existence of music and its origins remain a mystery. Science, however, has provided partial answers and theoretical models based on a variety of evidence; it has managed to point at some fundamental aspects to be considered, and has proposed hypotheses that should be tested. This paper presents a review of the literature regarding the scientific study of music, including the central problem of music universals, the complex relationship between music and language, and the difficulties that the evolutionary study of music faces. It also proposes that (1) science, in most cases, should focus on musicality rather than music itself, (2) that it is essential to consider the different aspects musicality consists of (which may have followed separate evolutionary paths), and (3) that it is important to design experiments and studies that allow differences between biological and cultural aspects to be drawn, and eventually separate possible adaptations from exaptations.La existencia de la música y su origen continúan siendo un misterio. Sin embargo, la ciencia ha logrado proveer respuestas parciales y modelos teóricos, basándose en una variedad de evidencias ha logrado señalar aspectos fundamentales y proponer hipótesis que deben ser estudiadas. Este artículo presenta una revisión de la literatura en cuanto al estudio científico de la música, incluyendo el problema central de los universales en música, la compleja relación entre música y lenguaje y las dificultades de los enfoques evolucionistas en torno a la música. Propone, además, (1) que la ciencia debe estudiar la musicalidad más que la música misma, (2) que es esencial tener en cuenta los diferentes aspectos que componen la musicalidad (que podrían tener desarrollos evolutivos independientes), y (3) que es importante diseñar experimentos y estudios que permitan separar, tanto los aspectos biológicos de los culturales, como eventualmente las posibles adaptaciones de las exaptaciones.A existência da musica e sua origem continua sendo um mistério. Contudo, a ciência há conseguido fornecer respostas parciais e modelos teóricos baseando-se numa variedade de evidencias, tem conseguido assinalar aspectos fundamentais e proposto hipóteses que devem ser estudadas. Este artigo apresenta uma revisão da literatura em quanto ao estudo cientifico da música, incluindo o problema central dos universais em música, a complexa relação entre música e linguagem, e as dificuldades das perspectivas evolucionistas em volta à música. Propõe alem disso, (1) que a ciência deve estudar a musicalidade mais que a musica mesma, (2) que é essencial ter em conta os diferentes aspectos que compõem a musicalidade (que poderiam ter desenvolvimentos evolutivos autônomos), (3) que é importante projetar experimentos e estudos que permitam separar, tanto os aspectos biológicos dos culturais, como eventualmente as possíveis adaptações das exaptações

Visually activating pathogen disgust: A new instrument for studying the behavioral immune system

The emotion of disgust plays a key role in the behavioral immune system, a set of disease-avoidance processes constituting a frontline defense against pathogenic threats. In the context of growing research interest in disgust, as well as recognition of its role in several psychiatric disorders, there is need for an improved understanding of behavioral triggers of disgust and for adequate techniques to both induce disgust in experimental settings and to measure individual variability in disgust sensitivity. In this study, we sought to address these issues using a multi-stage, bottom-up approach that aimed first to determine the most widespread and effective elicitors of disgust across several cultures. Based on exploratory factor analysis of these triggers, revealing four main components of pathogen-related disgust, we then generated a novel visual stimulus set of 20 images depicting scenes of highly salient pathogen risk, along with paired control images that are visually comparable but lack the disgust trigger. We present a series of validation analyses comparing our new stimulus set (the Culpepper Disgust Image Set, C-DIS) with the most commonly used pre-existing set, a series of 7 images devised by Curtis et al. (2004). Disgust scores from participants who rated the two image sets were positively correlated, indicating cross-test concordance, but results also showed that our pathogen-salient images elicited higher levels of disgust and our control images elicited lower levels of disgust. These findings suggest that the novel image set is a useful and effective tool for use in future research, both in terms of priming disgust and for measuring individual differences in disgust sensitivity

¿Existen diferencias en la ratio 2D:4D entre delincuentes sexuales y no sexuales, y hombres no delincuentes? Un estudio en una muestra colombiana

One research line in criminal behavior studies 2D:4D ratio as predictor of aggression and violent behavior has been established, given that there are sexually dimorphic behaviors associated with the influence of testosterone on brain organization. However, results have been mixed. The aim of this study was to explore the differences in the 2D:4D ratio among offending and non-offending Colombian men in four groups (N = 139). A comparative study was conducted with three groups of offenders sentenced in a Colombian penitentiary: (1) sexual offenders against children (n = 34), (2) sexual offenders against adult women (n = 31), and (3) non-sexual violent offenders (n=26); as well as one group (4) men with no criminal record (n = 48). The 2D:4D ratio was measured using the hand scanning technique and three digital measurements were analyzed with the Autometric software: right hand ratio, left hand ratio, and difference between the right and left hand ratios (Dr -Iz). Although, in all groups, right-digit ratio was lower that left-digit ratio (negative Dr–l ratio) and, in non-offending men this difference was not significant, no strong significant differences were found between groups in any measure of 2D:4D ratio used (right hand, left hand or Dr−l). The results support the idea that these associations are too weak to consider them predictors of sexual or non-sexual criminal behavior. The risk factors determining sexual or non-sexual criminal behavior, seems to go beyond intra-uterine effects and involve complex interactions between heritability, epigenetics, and pre-natal and post-natal life events

National income inequality predicts cultural variation in mouth to mouth kissing

Romantic mouth-to-mouth kissing is culturally widespread, although not a human universal, and may play a functional role in assessing partner health and maintaining long-term pair bonds. Use and appreciation of kissing may therefore vary according to whether the environment places a premium on good health and partner investment. Here, we test for cultural variation (13 countries from six continents) in these behaviours/attitudes according to national health (historical pathogen prevalence) and both absolute (GDP) and relative wealth (GINI). Our data reveal that kissing is valued more in established relationships than it is valued during courtship. Also, consistent with the pair bonding hypothesis of the function of romantic kissing, relative poverty (income inequality) predicts frequency of kissing across romantic relationships. When aggregated, the predicted relationship between income inequality and kissing frequency (r=.67, BCa 95%CI[.32,.89]) was over five times the size of the null correlations between income inequality and frequency of hugging/cuddling and sex. As social complexity requires monitoring resource competition among large groups and predicts kissing prevalence in remote societies, this gesture may be important in the maintenance of long-term pair bonds in specific environments

Facial attractiveness and preference of sexual dimorphism: A comparison across five populations

A pesar de las intensas investigaciones, la psicología evolutiva aún no ha llegado a un consenso sobre la asociación entre dimorfismo sexual y atractivo. Este estudio examina las asociaciones entre el dimorfismo sexual facial percibido y morfológico y el atractivo percibido en muestras de cinco países distantes (Camerún, Colombia, Chequia, Irán y Turquía). También examinamos los posibles efectos moderadores de la claridad de la piel, la promedialidad, la edad, la masa corporal y la anchura facial. Nuestros resultados sugieren que, en todas las muestras, la feminidad percibida por las mujeres estaba positivamente relacionada con su atractivo percibido. Las mujeres sólo encontraron atractiva la masculinidad percibida en los hombres en Chequia y Colombia, dos poblaciones distantes. Así pues, la asociación entre el dimorfismo sexual percibido y el atractivo es potencialmente universal sólo para las mujeres. En todas las poblaciones, el dimorfismo sexual morfológico y la promedialidad no se asocian universalmente ni con el dimorfismo sexual facial percibido ni con el atractivo. Con nuestro enfoque exploratorio, los resultados ponen de relieve la necesidad de controlar qué medida de dimorfismo sexual se utiliza (percibido o medido), ya que afectan de manera diferente al atractivo percibido. El promedio morfológico y el dimorfismo sexual no son buenos predictores del atractivo percibido. Se señala que los estudios futuros deberían utilizar más muestras de población para poder identificar los efectos específicos de las condiciones ambientales y socioeconómicas locales sobre los rasgos preferidos en estímulos faciales locales no manipulados.Despite intensive research, evolutionary psychology has not yet reached a consensus regarding the association between sexual dimorphism and attractiveness. This study examines associations between perceived and morphological facial sexual dimorphism and perceived attractiveness in samples from five distant countries (Cameroon, Colombia, Czechia, Iran, and Turkey). We also examined possible moderating effects of skin lightness, averageness, age, body mass, and facial width. Our results suggest that in all samples, women’s perceived femininity was positively related to their perceived attractiveness. Women found perceived masculinity in men attractive only in Czechia and Colombia, two distant populations. The association between perceived sexual dimorphism and attractiveness is thus potentially universal only for women. Across populations, morphological sexual dimorphism and averageness are not universally associated with either perceived facial sexual dimorphism or attractiveness. With our exploratory approach, results highlight the need for control of which measure of sexual dimorphism is used (perceived or measured) because they affect perceived attractiveness differently. Morphological averageness and sexual dimorphism are not good predictors of perceived attractiveness. It is noted that future studies should use more population samples to allow for identification of specific effects of local environmental and socioeconomic conditions on preferred traits in unmanipulated local facial stimuli

Musicality In Human Vocal Communication: An Evolutionary Perspective

Studies show that specific vocal modulations, akin to those of infant-directed speech and perhaps music, play a role in communicating intentions and mental states during human social interaction. Based on this, we propose a model for the evolution of musicality-the capacity to process musical information-in relation to human vocal communication. We suggest that a complex social environment, with strong social bonds, promoted the appearance of musicality-related abilities. These social bonds were not limited to those between offspring and mothers or other carers, although these may have been especially influential in view of altriciality of human infants. The model can be further tested in other species by comparing levels of sociality and complexity of vocal communication. By integrating several theories, our model presents a radically different view of musicality, not limited to specifically musical scenarios, but one in which this capacity originally evolved to aid parent-infant communication and bonding, and even today plays a role, not only in music but also in infant-directed speech (IDS), as well as some adult-directed speech (ADS) contexts.Authors for correspondence - Juan David Leongómez and S. Craig Robert

Visually Activating Pathogen Disgust: A New Instrument for Studying the Behavioral Immune System

The emotion of disgust plays a key role in the behavioral immune system, a set of disease-avoidance processes constituting a frontline defense against pathogenic threats. In the context of growing research interest in disgust, as well as recognition of its role in several psychiatric disorders, there is need for an improved understanding of behavioral triggers of disgust and for adequate techniques to both induce disgust in experimental settings and to measure individual variability in disgust sensitivity. In this study, we sought to address these issues using a multi-stage, bottom-up approach that aimed first to determine the most widespread and effective elicitors of disgust across several cultures. Based on exploratory factor analysis of these triggers, revealing four main components of pathogen-related disgust, we then generated a novel visual stimulus set of 20 images depicting scenes of highly salient pathogen risk, along with paired control images that are visually comparable but lack the disgust trigger. We present a series of validation analyses comparing our new stimulus set (the Culpepper Disgust Image Set, C-DIS) with the most commonly used pre-existing set, a series of 7 images devised by Curtis et al. (2004). Disgust scores from participants who rated the two image sets were positively correlated, indicating cross-test concordance, but results also showed that our pathogen-salient images elicited higher levels of disgust and our control images elicited lower levels of disgust. These findings suggest that the novel image set is a useful and effective tool for use in future research, both in terms of priming disgust and for measuring individual differences in disgust sensitivity

Men say "I love you" before women do:robust across several countries

Feeling and expressing love is at the core of romantic relationships, but individuals differ in their proclivity to worry about their relationships and/or avoid intimacy. Saying “I love you” signals a commitment to a future with our romantic partner. Contrary to gender stereotypes, research in the United States demonstrates that men are more likely to confess love first. We aimed to replicate this sex difference in an online cross-national sample (seven countries, three continents), while testing for variation according to attachment style and environment (the national sex ratio). Men were more likely to confess love first in a relationship, with preliminary evidence that this was more likely when men had more choice (more female-biased sex ratio). Independent of biological sex, highly avoidant respondents were less happy to hear “I love you” than less avoidant respondents, and highly anxious respondents were happier to hear “I love you” than less anxious respondents. Our findings suggest that prior observations generalize beyond an ethnically homogenous sample and incorporate attachment theory into the study of love confessions. Our research suggests a dissociation between initial declarations of love (moderated by biological sex) and emotional responses to love confessions, moderated by attachment style but not by biological sex

How and why patterns of sexual dimorphism in human faces vary across the world

Sexual selection, including mate choice and intrasexual competition, is responsible for the evolution of some of the most elaborated and sexually dimorphic traits in animals. Although there is sexual dimorphism in the shape of human faces, it is not clear whether this is similarly due to mate choice, or whether mate choice affects only part of the facial shape difference between men and women. Here we explore these questions by investigating patterns of both facial shape and facial preference across a diverse set of human populations. We find evidence that human populations vary substantially and unexpectedly in both the magnitude and direction of facial sexually dimorphic traits. In particular, European and South American populations display larger levels of facial sexual dimorphism than African populations. Neither cross-cultural differences in facial shape variation, sex differences in body height, nor differing preferences for facial femininity and masculinity across countries, explain the observed patterns of facial dimorphism. Altogether, the association between sexual shape dimorphism and attractiveness is moderate for women and weak (or absent) for men. Analysis that distinguishes between allometric and non-allometric components reveals that non-allometric facial dimorphism is preferred in women’s faces but not in faces of men. This might be due to different regimes of ongoing sexual selection acting on men, such as stronger intersexual selection for body height and more intense intrasexual physical competition, compared with women

Ni crisis ni panaceas: dinámicas y transformaciones de los sistemas partidarios en América Latina

A nivel global, tanto en la literatura especializada como en el debate público, la desafección ciudadana hacia la cosa pública, el debilitamiento de los partidos políticos y el aumento de la abstención contribuyeron a asentar la idea de una crisis de los sistemas de partidos y de la democracia. Diferentes indicadores darían cuenta de esta crisis: el desarraigo social de los partidos que consagró el modelo del partido cartel (Katz y Mair 1995); el declive de la militancia (Van Biezen, Mair y Poguntke 2012; Whiteley 2011); la erosión de las estructuras partidarias tradicionales capturadas por el lobby corporativo (Crouch 2004 [2014], 112) o la tecnocracia; la pérdida de capacidad de los líderes para construir partidos programáticos que expresaran identidades políticas duraderas (Cheresky 2006; Dalton 2004; Luna 2014b); o su incapacidad para responder con una mayor deliberación interna a los desafíos de la representación política (Accetti y Wolkenstein 2017).Fil: Alenda, Stéphanie. Universidad Andrés Bello; ChileFil: Varetto, Carlos Augusto. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de San Martin. Escuela de Politica y Gobierno. Centro de Estudios Federales y Electorales; Argentin