Social Media Influencers: An Examination of Influence Throughout the Customer Journey

Social media influencers (SMI) expanded exponentially in both numbers and credibility shortly after the widespread emergence of social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram. Firms have noticed this increase and as a result, diverted billions of dollars in their marketing budgets toward SMI endorsements and campaigns, and away from traditional media. As often happens with quickly occurring phenomena, academic research is subsequently racing to understand the integral roles SMIs now command in social media marketing, and in marketing in general. Much of the latest research designed to understand and measure the effects of SMIs relies on previous research into traditional celebrity endorsers. SMI attributes and approaches have been researched like previous traditional celebrity studies. Another emerging and relevant topic is para-social relationships – in which followers feel as if they know the influencer like a friend though the SMI likely does not feel the same way. While there are similarities, major differences exist between traditional celebrities and SMIs. Examples include the delivery via social media platforms, increased engagement through the platforms, and uploadable user-generated content (UGC). Unlike musicians, athletes, and actresses, SMIs are generating their stardom and followings on social media platforms with their UGC. Though the traditional xiii celebrity concept is still quite relevant regarding endorsements, younger consumers have been opting for less traditional media for entertainment purposes. Businesses have realized reaching Generation Z is effective and efficient through SMIs. This study advances the SMI literature in understanding the differences in para-social relationships formed with SMIs and their role throughout selected components of the customer journey rather than individual parts of it

Up Rooting: Sports Marketing Analytics and Attendance in Major League Baseball

Spurred by a continuous decline in Major League Baseball (MLB) ticket sales and attendance, this study examines external and internal factors affecting team financial performance. Using only secondary data, constructs for external factors (i.e. population, facility age, etc.), team offensive performance (i.e. at-bats, home runs, etc.), attendance, and revenue-based financial metrics were analyzed with PLS-SEM. The findings reveal external factors positively affect both attendance and team financials, but the relationship between a team’s offensive performance and team financials is fully mediated by attendance. The findings imply future sales growth may need to come from marketing strategies and promotional efforts beyond a team’s surrounding geographical area, and possibly through the adoption of new technology to reach their target market

Analysis of the avian coronavirus spike protein reveals heterogeneity in the glycans present

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is an economically important coronavirus, causing damaging losses to the poultry industry worldwide as the causative agent of infectious bronchitis. The coronavirus spike (S) glycoprotein is a large type I membrane protein protruding from the surface of the virion, which facilitates attachment and entry into host cells. The IBV S protein is cleaved into two subunits, S1 and S2, the latter of which has been identified as a determinant of cellular tropism. Recent studies expressing coronavirus S proteins in mammalian and insect cells have identified a high level of glycosylation on the protein’s surface. Here we used IBV propagated in embryonated hens’ eggs to explore the glycan profile of viruses derived from infection in cells of the natural host, chickens. We identified multiple glycan types on the surface of the protein and found a strain-specific dependence on complex glycans for recognition of the S2 subunit by a monoclonal antibody in vitro, with no effect on viral replication following the chemical inhibition of complex glycosylation. Virus neutralization by monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies was not affected. Following analysis of predicted glycosylation sites for the S protein of four IBV strains, we confirmed glycosylation at 18 sites by mass spectrometry for the pathogenic laboratory strain M41-CK. Further characterization revealed heterogeneity among the glycans present at six of these sites, indicating a difference in the glycan profile of individual S proteins on the IBV virion. These results demonstrate a non-specific role for complex glycans in IBV replication, with an indication of an involvement in antibody recognition but not neutralisation

A Temperature-Sensitive Recombinant of Avian Coronavirus Infectious Bronchitis Virus Provides Complete Protection against Homologous Challenge

Avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is the etiological agent of infectious bronchitis, an acute highly contagious economically relevant respiratory disease of poultry. Vaccination is used to control IBV infections, with live-attenuated vaccines generated via serial passage of a virulent field isolate through embryonated hens' eggs. A fine balance must be achieved between attenuation and the retention of immunogenicity. The exact molecular mechanism of attenuation is unknown, and vaccines produced in this manner present a risk of reversion to virulence as few consensus level changes are acquired. Our previous research resulted in the generation of a recombinant IBV (rIBV) known as M41-R, based on a pathogenic strain M41-CK. M41-R was attenuated in vivo by two amino acid changes, Nsp10-Pro85Leu and Nsp14-Val393Leu; however, the mechanism of attenuation was not determined. Pro85 and Val393 were found to be conserved among not only IBV strains but members of the wider coronavirus family. This study demonstrates that the same changes are associated with a temperature-sensitive (ts) replication phenotype at 41°C in vitro, suggesting that the two phenotypes may be linked. Vaccination of specific-pathogen-free chickens with M41-R induced 100% protection against clinical disease, tracheal ciliary damage, and challenge virus replication following homologous challenge with virulent M41-CK. Temperature sensitivity has been used to rationally attenuate other viral pathogens, including influenza, and the identification of amino acid changes that impart both a ts and an attenuated phenotype may therefore offer an avenue for future coronavirus vaccine development. IMPORTANCE Infectious bronchitis virus is a pathogen of economic and welfare concern for the global poultry industry. Live-attenuated vaccines against are generated by serial passage of a virulent isolate in embryonated eggs until attenuation is achieved. The exact mechanisms of attenuation are unknown, and vaccines produced have a risk of reversion to virulence. Reverse genetics provides a method to generate vaccines that are rationally attenuated and are more stable with respect to back selection due to their clonal origin. Genetic populations resulting from molecular clones are more homogeneous and lack the presence of parental pathogenic viruses, which generation by multiple passage does not. In this study, we identified two amino acids that impart a temperature-sensitive replication phenotype. Immunogenicity is retained and vaccination results in 100% protection against homologous challenge. Temperature sensitivity, used for the development of vaccines against other viruses, presents a method for the development of coronavirus vaccines

Temperature Sensitivity: A Potential Method for the Generation of Vaccines against the Avian Coronavirus Infectious Bronchitis Virus.

The Gammacoronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a highly contagious economically important respiratory pathogen of domestic fowl. Reverse genetics allows for the molecular study of pathogenic determinants to enable rational vaccine design. The recombinant IBV (rIBV) Beau-R, a molecular clone of the apathogenic Beaudette strain, has previously been investigated as a vaccine platform. To determine tissues in which Beau-R could effectively deliver antigenic genes, an in vivo study in chickens, the natural host, was used to compare the pattern of viral dissemination of Beau-R to the pathogenic strain M41-CK. Replication of Beau-R was found to be restricted to soft tissue within the beak, whereas M41-CK was detected in beak tissue, trachea and eyelid up to seven days post infection. In vitro assays further identified that, unlike M41-CK, Beau-R could not replicate at 41 °C, the core body temperature of a chicken, but is able to replicate a 37 °C, a temperature relatable to the very upper respiratory tract. Using a panel of rIBVs with defined mutations in the structural and accessory genes, viral replication at permissive and non-permissive temperatures was investigated, identifying that the Beau-R replicase gene was a determinant of temperature sensitivity and that sub-genomic mRNA synthesis had been affected. The identification of temperature sensitive allelic lesions within the Beau-R replicase gene opens up the possibility of using this method of attenuation in other IBV strains for future vaccine development as well as a method to investigate the functions of the IBV replicase proteins

Identification of Amino Acids within Nonstructural Proteins 10 and 14 of the Avian Coronavirus Infectious Bronchitis Virus That Result in Attenuation In Vivo and In Ovo

The Gammacoronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a highly contagious global pathogen prevalent in all types of poultry flocks. IBV is responsible for economic losses and welfare issues in domestic poultry, resulting in a significant risk to food security. IBV vaccines are currently generated by serial passage of virulent IBV field isolates through embryonated hens' eggs. The different patterns of genomic variation accumulated during this process means that the exact mechanism of attenuation is unknown and presents a risk of reversion to virulence. Additionally, the passaging process adapts the virus to replicate in chicken embryos, increasing embryo lethality. Vaccines produced in this manner are therefore unsuitable for in ovo application. We have developed a reverse genetics system, based on the pathogenic IBV strain M41, to identify genes which can be targeted for rational attenuation. During the development of this reverse genetics system, we identified four amino acids, located in nonstructural proteins (nsps) 10, 14, 15, and 16, which resulted in attenuation both in vivo and in ovo. Further investigation highlighted a role of amino acid changes, Pro85Leu in nsp 10 and Val393Leu in nsp 14, in the attenuated in vivo phenotype observed. This study provides evidence that mutations in nsps offer a promising mechanism for the development of rationally attenuated live vaccines against IBV, which have the potential for in ovo application. IMPORTANCE The Gammacoronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is the etiological agent of infectious bronchitis, an acute, highly contagious, economically important disease of poultry. Vaccination is achieved using a mixture of live attenuated vaccines for young chicks and inactivated vaccines as boosters for laying hens. Live attenuated vaccines are generated through serial passage in embryonated hens' eggs, an empirical process which achieves attenuation but retains immunogenicity. However, these vaccines have a risk of reversion to virulence, and they are lethal to the embryo. In this study, we identified amino acids in the replicase gene which attenuated IBV strain M41, both in vivo and in ovo. Stability assays indicate that the attenuating amino acids are stable and unlikely to revert. The data in this study provide evidence that specific modifications in the replicase gene offer a promising direction for IBV live attenuated vaccine development, with the potential for in ovo application

Multiple novel non-canonically transcribed sub-genomic mRNAs produced by avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus

Funding: This work was supported by Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) grants BB/L003988/1 and 1645891, and strategic funding to The Pirbright Institute, BBS/E/I/00007035, BBS/E/I/00007034, BBS/E/I/00007037 and BBS/E/I/00007039.Coronavirus sub-genomic mRNA (sgmRNA) synthesis occurs via a process of discontinuous transcription involving complementary transcription regulatory sequences (TRSs), one (TRS-L) encompassing the leader sequence of the 5' untranslated region (UTR), and the other upstream of each structural and accessory gene (TRS-B). Several coronaviruses have an ORF located between the N gene and the 3'-UTR, an area previously thought to be non-coding in the Gammacoronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) due to a lack of a canonical TRS-B. Here, we identify a non-canonical TRS-B allowing for a novel sgmRNA relating to this ORF to be produced in several strains of IBV: Beaudette, CR88, H120, D1466, Italy-02 and QX. Interestingly, the potential protein produced by this ORF is prematurely truncated in the Beaudette strain. A single nucleotide deletion was made in the Beaudette strain allowing for the generation of a recombinant IBV (rIBV) that had the potential to express a full-length protein. Assessment of this rIBV in vitro demonstrated that restoration of the full-length potential protein had no effect on viral replication. Further assessment of the Beaudette-derived RNA identified a second non-canonically transcribed sgmRNA located within gene 2. Deep sequencing analysis of allantoic fluid from Beaudette-infected embryonated eggs confirmed the presence of both the newly identified non-canonically transcribed sgmRNAs and highlighted the potential for further yet unidentified sgmRNAs. This HiSeq data, alongside the confirmation of non-canonically transcribed sgmRNAs, indicates the potential of the coronavirus genome to encode a larger repertoire of genes than has currently been identified.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Towards a large-scale quantum simulator on diamond surface at room temperature

Strongly-correlated quantum many-body systems exhibits a variety of exotic phases with long-range quantum correlations, such as spin liquids and supersolids. Despite the rapid increase in computational power of modern computers, the numerical simulation of these complex systems becomes intractable even for a few dozens of particles. Feynman's idea of quantum simulators offers an innovative way to bypass this computational barrier. However, the proposed realizations of such devices either require very low temperatures (ultracold gases in optical lattices, trapped ions, superconducting devices) and considerable technological effort, or are extremely hard to scale in practice (NMR, linear optics). In this work, we propose a new architecture for a scalable quantum simulator that can operate at room temperature. It consists of strongly-interacting nuclear spins attached to the diamond surface by its direct chemical treatment, or by means of a functionalized graphene sheet. The initialization, control and read-out of this quantum simulator can be accomplished with nitrogen-vacancy centers implanted in diamond. The system can be engineered to simulate a wide variety of interesting strongly-correlated models with long-range dipole-dipole interactions. Due to the superior coherence time of nuclear spins and nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond, our proposal offers new opportunities towards large-scale quantum simulation at room temperatures

The Interspersed Spin Boson Lattice Model

We describe a family of lattice models that support a new class of quantum magnetism characterized by correlated spin and bosonic ordering [Phys. Rev. Lett. 112, 180405 (2014)]. We explore the full phase diagram of the model using Matrix-Product-State methods. Guided by these numerical results, we describe a modified variational ansatz to improve our analytic description of the groundstate at low boson frequencies. Additionally, we introduce an experimental protocol capable of inferring the low-energy excitations of the system by means of Fano scattering spectroscopy. Finally, we discuss the implementation and characterization of this model with current circuit-QED technology.Comment: Submitted to EPJ ST issue on "Novel Quantum Phases and Mesoscopic Physics in Quantum Gases