Impact of Individuals' Commuting Trips on Subjective Well-being: Evidence from Xi’an

Transportation as an important component for urban sustainability has been well recognized. Although the lay understanding of sustainability generally focuses on environmental stewardship, more broadly sustainability is comprised of three aspects: environmental, economic and social sustainability. Individual and societal well-being are critical indicators of social sustainability, however, little attention from research and policy has been paid to the impacts of transportation on well-being. With extensive urban expansion resulting from rapid urbanization, commuting has become a physical and mental burden for many residents in the megacities of China because of the increasing travel distances and worsening travel experiences, significantly influencing their well-being. Relying on the data from a survey conducted in Xi-an, a mega-city of western China, this study quantitatively investigated the relationship between commuting and subjective wellbeing in the Chinese context. Based on the evidence from Xi-an, China, this study found that (1) commute characteristics, including travel mode choice and level of services, significantly influence commuting satisfaction, which in turn significantly affects overall satisfaction with life; (2) the built environment has no direct effect on commuting satisfaction, however it could indirectly affect commuting satisfaction through the path of commuting characteristics; most of travel-related attitudes have both direct and indirect effects on travel satisfaction; (3) the lower income population are more likely to live in pedestrian and transit unfriendly places, are more captive to their travel modes, and have lower levels of life satisfaction; all of which contribute to the lower level of commuting satisfaction among the lower income population. This study contributes to the literature by framing and quantitatively exploring the complicated relationships between the built environment, attitudes, travel characteristics, travel satisfaction and subjective wellbeing. This study also informs policies that help to improve satisfaction with commuting and wellbeing

Ternary diagram (A) and biplot (B) illustrating the relationship between SPF values and ochre colour.

<p>Ternary diagram (A) and biplot (B) illustrating the relationship between SPF values and ochre colour.</p

XRD spectra recorded for ochre samples 5 (Ovinjange fine ground ochre powder), 15 (Napier medium hard red shale chunk) and 19 (Napier soft yellow limonite chunk).

<p>XRD spectra recorded for ochre samples 5 (Ovinjange fine ground ochre powder), 15 (Napier medium hard red shale chunk) and 19 (Napier soft yellow limonite chunk).</p

Experimental ochre samples subjected to SPF, ED-XRF, XRD, granulometric, colorimetric and UVR analyses.

<p>Experimental ochre samples subjected to SPF, ED-XRF, XRD, granulometric, colorimetric and UVR analyses.</p

The production and application of otjise.

<p>(A) Red ochre powder is obtained by grinding chunks (inset—scale bar is 1cm) between a round upper and a flat lower grindstone, (B) after which it is mixed (at a 1:1 ratio between the palms) with milk-derived clarified butter and (C) applied to the hair, body and ornaments.</p

<i>In vivo</i> SPF and <i>in vitro</i> UVAPF values and critical wavelengths (CW) of ethnographic and experimental ochre powder samples.

<p>EGO: ground by Ovahimba; GQS: Experimentally ground onto quartzite slab; EGLO: Experimentally ground (like Ovahimba)</p><p><i>In vivo</i> SPF and <i>in vitro</i> UVAPF values and critical wavelengths (CW) of ethnographic and experimental ochre powder samples.</p

The classification of human skin types pertaining to responses to UVR exposure [70–75].

<p>Constitutive values in brackets refer to the Von Luschan chromatic skin colour classification scale [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0136090#pone.0136090.ref076" target="_blank">76</a>]. ‘Exposure’ refers to the amount of time during which UVR exposure would not induce perceptible damage to the skin. RSF is a factor characterizing the protective effect of a sunscreen against the generation of free radicals.</p

The location of the Kunene Region (red shaded area) in north-western Namibia (sourced from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map_Namibia/doc).

<p>The location of the Kunene Region (red shaded area) in north-western Namibia (sourced from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map_Namibia/doc" target="_blank">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map_Namibia/doc</a>).</p

Representative grain size distributions for each group.

<p>Representative grain size distributions for each group.</p

L*a*b* colourimetric properties of ethnographic and experimental ochre samples with L* representing lightness (100 white / 0 black), a* indicating variations between red (+) and green (-), and b* representing variations between yellow (+) and blue components (-).

<p>EGO: ground by Ovahimba; GQS: Experimentally ground onto quartzite slab; EGLO: Experimentally ground (like Ovahimba)</p><p>The first sample was arbitrarily selected as the reference sample and the Delta E (ΔE) values calculated accordingly.</p