Endocrine/neuroendocrine glands: Pituitary adenomas

Review on Endocrine/neuroendocrine glands: Pituitary adenomas, with data on clinics, and the genes involved

The cooling of atomic and molecular gas in DR21

We present an overview of a high-mass star formation region through the major (sub-)mm, and far-infrared cooling lines to gain insight into the physical conditions and the energy budget of the molecular cloud. We used the KOSMA 3m telescope to map the core ($10'\times 14'$) of the Galactic star forming region DR 21/DR 21 (OH) in the Cygnus X region in the two fine structure lines of atomic carbon CI and four mid-$J$ transitions of CO and $^{13}$CO, and CS J=7\TO6. These observations have been combined with FCRAO J=1\TO0 observations of $^{13}$CO and C$^{18}$O. Five positions, including DR21, DR21 (OH), and DR21 FIR1, were observed with the ISO/LWS grating spectrometer in the \OI 63 and 145 $\mu$m lines, the \CII 158 $\mu$m line, and four high-$J$ CO lines. We discuss the intensities and line ratios at these positions and apply Local Thermal Equilibrium (LTE) and non-LTE analysis methods in order to derive physical parameters such as masses, densities and temperatures. The CO line emission has been modeled up to J=20. From non-LTE modeling of the low- to high-$J$ CO lines we identify two gas components, a cold one at temperatures of T_\RM{kin}\sim 30-40 K, and one with T_\RM{kin}\sim 80-150 K at a local clump density of about n(H$_2$)$\sim 10^4-10^6$ cm$^{-3}$. While the cold quiescent component is massive containing typically more than 94 % of the mass, the warm, dense, and turbulent gas is dominated by mid- and high-$J$ CO line emission and its large line widths. The medium must be clumpy with a volume-filling of a few percent. The CO lines are found to be important for the cooling of the cold molecular gas, e.g. at DR21 (OH). Near the outflow of the UV-heated source DR21, the gas cooling is dominated by line emission of atomic oxygen and of CO

SETD5 Gene Haploinsufficiency in Three Patients With Suspected KBG Syndrome

Mendelian disorders of the epigenetic machinery (MDEMs), also named chromatin modifying disorders, are a broad group of neurodevelopmental disorders, caused by mutations in functionally related chromatin genes. Mental retardation autosomal dominant 23 (MRD23) syndrome, due to SETD5 gene mutations, falls into this group of disorders. KBG syndrome, caused by ANKRD11 gene haploinsufficiency, is a chromatin related syndrome not formally belonging to this category. We performed high resolution array CGH and trio-based WES on three molecularly unsolved patients with an initial KBGS clinical diagnosis. A de novo deletion of 116 kb partially involving SETD5 and two de novo frameshift variants in SETD5 were identified in the patients. The clinical re-evaluation of the patients was consistent with the molecular findings, though still compatible with KBGS due to overlapping phenotypic features of KBGS and MRD23. Careful detailed expert phenotyping ascertained some facial and physical features that were consistent with MRD23 rather than KBGS. Our results provide further examples that loss-of-function pathogenic variants in genes encoding factors shaping the epigenetic landscape, lead to a wide phenotypic range with significant clinical overlap. We recommend that clinicians consider SETD5 gene haploinsufficiency in the differential diagnosis of KBGS. Due to overlap of clinical features, careful and detailed phenotyping is important and a large gene panel approach is recommended in the diagnostic workup of patients with a clinical suspicion of KBGS

9q34.3 microduplications lead to neurodevelopmental disorders through EHMT1 overexpression

Both copy number losses and gains occur within subtelomeric 9q34 region without common breakpoints. The microdeletions cause Kleefstra syndrome (KS), whose responsible gene is EHMT1. A 9q34 duplication syndrome (9q34 DS) had been reported in literature, but it has never been characterized by a detailed molecular analysis of the gene content and endpoints. To the best of our knowledge, we report on the first patient carrying the smallest 9q34.3 duplication containing EHMT1 as the only relevant gene. We compared him with 21 reported patients described here as carrying 9q34.3 duplications encompassing the entire gene and extending within ~\u20093 Mb. By surveying the available clinical and molecular cytogenetic data, we were able to discover that similar neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) were shared by patient carriers of even very differently sized duplications. Moreover, some facial features of the 9q34 DS were more represented than those of KS. However, an accurate in silico analysis of the genes mapped in all the duplications allowed us to support EHMT1 as being sufficient to cause a NDD phenotype. Wider patient cohorts are needed to ascertain whether the rearrangements have full causative role or simply confer the susceptibility to NDDs and possibly to identify the cognitive and behavioral profile associated with the increased dosage of EHMT1

Smith-Magenis sindrome and growth hormone deficiency

Smith-Magenis syndrome (SMS) is a multiple congenital anomaly/mental retardation syndrome including physical and neurobehavioural features. The disease is commonly associated with a ca. 3.7 Mb interstitial deletion of chromosome 17p11.2, while a 1.1 Mb critical region has been identified, containing about 20 genes expressed in multiple tissues. Haploinsufficiency of one of them, RAI1, seems to be responsible for the neurobehavioural, craniofacial and otolaryngological features of the syndrome, but not for short stature, commonly seen in SMS patients with chromosome deletion, implying the role of other genes in the 17p11.2 region. Growth failure is a final result of several different mechanisms involving decreased growth hormone (GH) production, reduced tissue response to GH, or impaired activity of epistatic factors. To our knowledge, the association of GH deficiency with SMS has never been reported and rarely investigated, despite the very short stature of SMS patients. We describe a girl with a full SMS phenotype and a typical 3.7 Mb deletion of 17p11.2 who also has GH deficiency. After starting replacement therapy, growth has significantly improved, her stature being now above both the 10th percentile and her genetic target. CONCLUSION: we suggest that an investigation of both growth hormone secretion and function is carried out in patients with Smith-Magenis syndrome and 17p11.2 deletion

Cryptic subtelomeric translocation t(2;16)(q37;q24) segregating in a family with unexplained stillbirths and a dysmorphic, slightly retarded child

We here describe a submicroscopic translocation affecting the subtelomeric regions of chromosomes 2q and 16q and segregating in a family with stillbirths, early pregnancy losses, and two dysmorphic and slightly retarded babies. FISH analysis showed a 46,XY,der(2)t(2,16)(q37.3;q24.3) in the propositus, and a balanced t(2;16) in his mother, her conceptus and maternal grandfather. FISH with YACs and BACs made it possible to map the 2q37 breakpoint precisely between the regions covered by y952E1 and y746H1, and the 16q breakpoint between the regions encompassed by bA 309g16 and bA 533d19. The contribution of 2q37.3 monosomy and 16q24.3 trisomy to the proband's phenotype is compared with that in reported patients with similar imbalances of either chromosome

Detection of chromosome aberrations in metaphase and interphase tumor cells by in situ hybridization using chromosome-specific library probes

Chromosome aberrations in two glioma cell lines were analyzed using biotinylated DNA library probes that specifically decorate chromosomes 1, 4, 7, 18 and 22 from pter to qter. Numerical changes, deletions and rearrangements of these chromosomes were radily visualized in metaphase spreads, as well as in early prophase and interphase nuclei. Complete chromosomes, deleted chromosomes and segments of translocated chromosomes were rapidly delineated in very complex karyotypes. Simultaneous hybridizations with additional subregional probes were used to further define aberrant chromosomes. Digital image analysis was used to quantitate the total complement of specific chromosomal DNAs in individual metaphase and interphase cells of each cell line. In spite of the fact that both glioma lines have been passaged in vitro for many years, an under-representation of chromosome 22 and an over-representation of chromosome 7 (specifically 7p) were observed. These observations agree with previous studies on gliomas. In addition, sequences of chromosome 4 were also found to be under-represented, especially in TC 593. These analyses indicate the power of these methods for pinpointing chromosome segments that are altered in specific types of tumors

Targeted whole exome sequencing and Drosophila modelling to unveil the molecular basis of primary ovarian insufficiency

STUDY QUESTION: Can a targeted whole exome sequencing (WES) on a cohort of women showing a primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) phenotype at a young age, combined with a study of copy number variations, identify variants in candidate genes confirming their deleterious effect on ovarian function? SUMMARY ANSWER: This integrated approach has proved effective in identifying novel candidate genes unveiling mechanisms involved in POI pathogenesis. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: POI, a condition occurring in 1% of women under 40 years of age, affects women’s fertility leading to a premature loss of ovarian reserve. The genetic causes of POI are highly heterogeneous and several determinants contributing to its prominent oligogenic inheritance pattern still need to be elucidated. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: WES screening for pathogenic variants of 41 Italian women with non-syndromic primary and early secondary amenorrhoea occurring before age 25 was replicated on another 60 POI patients, including 35 French and 25 American women, to reveal statistically significant shared variants. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: The Italian POI patients’ DNA were processed by targeted WES including 542 RefSeq genes expressed or functioning during distinct reproductive or ovarian processes (e.g. DNA repair, meiosis, oocyte maturation, folliculogenesis and menopause). Extremely rare variants were filtered and selected by means of a Fisher Exact test using several publicly available datasets. A case-control Burden test was applied to highlight the most significant genes using two ad-hoc control female cohorts. To support the obtained data, the identified genes were screened on a novel cohort of 60 Caucasian POI patients and the same case-control analysis was carried out. Comparative analysis of the human identified genes was performed on mouse and Drosophila melanogaster by analysing the orthologous genes in their ovarian phenotype, and two of the selected genes were fruit fly modelled to explore their role in fertility. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: The filtering steps applied to search for extremely rare pathogenic variants in the Italian cohort revealed 64 validated single-nucleotide variants/Indels in 59 genes in 30 out of 41 screened women. Burden test analysis highlighted 13 ovarian genes as being the most enriched and significant. To validate these findings, filtering steps and Burden analysis on the second cohort of Caucasian patients yielded 11 significantly enriched genes. Among them, AFP, DMRT3, MOV10, FYN and MYC were significant in both patient cohorts and hence were considered strong candidates for POI. Mouse and Drosophila comparative analysis evaluated a conserved role through the evolution of several candidates, and functional studies using a Drosophila model, when applicable, supported the conserved role of the MOV10 armitage and DMRT3 dmrt93B orthologues in female fertility. LARGE SCALE DATA: The datasets for the Italian cohort generated during the current study are publicly available at ClinVar database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/): accession numbers SCV001364312 to SCV001364375. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: This is a targeted WES analysis hunting variants in candidate genes previously identified by different genomic approaches. For most of the investigated sporadic cases, we could not track the parental inheritance, due to unavailability of the parents’ DNA samples; in addition, we might have overlooked additional rare variants in novel candidate POI genes extracted from the exome data. On the contrary, we might have considered some inherited variants whose clinical significance is uncertain and might not be causative for the patients’ phenotype. Additionally, as regards the Drosophila model, it will be extremely important in the future to have more mutants or RNAi strains available for each candidate gene in order to validate their role in POI pathogenesis. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: The genomic, statistical, comparative and functional approaches integrated in our study convincingly support the extremely heterogeneous oligogenic nature of POI, and confirm the maintenance across the evolution of some key genes safeguarding fertility and successful reproduction. Two principal classes of genes were identified: (i) genes primarily involved in meiosis, namely in synaptonemal complex formation, asymmetric division and oocyte maturation and (ii) genes safeguarding cell maintenance (piRNA and DNA repair pathways). STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): This work was supported by Italian Ministry of Health grants ‘Ricerca Corrente’ (08C621_2016 and 08C924_2019) provided to IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, and by ‘Piano Sostegno alla Ricerca’ (PSR2020_FINELLI_LINEA_B) provided by the University of Milan; M.P.B. was supported by Telethon-Italy (grant number GG14181). There are no conflicts of interest

Targeted whole exome sequencing and Drosophila modelling to unveil the molecular basis of primary ovarian insufficiency

STUDY QUESTION: Can a targeted whole exome sequencing (WES) on a cohort of women showing a primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) phenotype at a young age, combined with a study of copy number variations, identify variants in candidate genes confirming their deleterious effect on ovarian function? SUMMARY ANSWER: This integrated approach has proved effective in identifying novel candidate genes unveiling mechanisms involved in POI pathogenesis. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: POI, a condition occurring in 1% of women under 40 years of age, affects women’s fertility leading to a premature loss of ovarian reserve. The genetic causes of POI are highly heterogeneous and several determinants contributing to its promi-nent oligogenic inheritance pattern still need to be elucidated. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: WES screening for pathogenic variants of 41 Italian women with non-syndromic primary and early secondary amenorrhoea occurring before age 25 was replicated on another 60 POI patients, including 35 French and 25 American women, to reveal statistically significant shared variants. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: The Italian POI patients’ DNA were processed by targeted WES including 542 RefSeq genes expressed or functioning during distinct reproductive or ovarian processes (e.g. DNA repair, meiosis, oocyte maturation, folliculogenesis and menopause). Extremely rare variants were filtered and selected by means of a Fisher Exact test using several publicly available datasets. A case-control Burden test was applied to highlight the most significant genes using two ad-hoc control female cohorts. To support the obtained data, the identified genes were screened on a novel cohort of 60 Caucasian POI patients and the same case-control analysis was carried out. Comparative analysis of the human identified genes was performed on mouse and Drosophila melanogaster by analysing the orthologous genes in their ovarian phenotype, and two of the selected genes were fruit fly modelled to explore their role in fertility.MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: The filtering steps applied to search for extremely rare pathogenic variants in the Italian cohort revealed 64 validated single-nucleotide variants/Indels in 59 genes in 30 out of 41 screened women. Burden test analysis highlighted 13 ovarian genes as being the most enriched and significant. To validate these findings, filtering steps and Burden analysis on the second cohort of Caucasian patients yielded 11 significantly enriched genes. Among them, AFP, DMRT3, MOV10, FYN and MYC were significant in both patient cohorts and hence were considered strong candidates for POI. Mouse and Drosophila comparative analysis evaluated a conserved role through the evolution of several candidates, and functional studies using a Drosophila model, when applicable, supported the conserved role of the MOV10 armitage and DMRT3 dmrt93B orthologues in female fertility

Molecular Etiology Disclosed by Array CGH in Patients With Silver–Russell Syndrome or Similar Phenotypes

Introduction: Silver-Russell syndrome (SRS) is an imprinting disorder primarily caused by genetic and epigenetic aberrations on chromosomes 11 and 7. SRS is a rare growth retardation disorder often misdiagnosed due to its heterogeneous and non-specific clinical features. The Netchine-Harbison clinical scoring system (NH-CSS) is the recommended tool for differentiating patients into clinical SRS or unlikely SRS. However, the clinical diagnosis is molecularly confirmed only in about 60% of patients, leaving the remaining substantial proportion of SRS patients with unknown genetic etiology. Materials and Methods: A cohort of 34 Italian patients with SRS or SRS-like features scored according to the NH-CSS and without any SRS-associated (epi)genetic alterations was analyzed by high-resolution array-based comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) in order to identify potentially pathogenic copy number variants (CNVs). Results and Discussion: In seven patients, making up 21% of the initial cohort, five pathogenic and two potentially pathogenic CNVs were found involving distinct genomic regions either previously associated with growth delay conditions (1q24.3-q25.3, 17p13.3, 17q22, and 22q11.2-q11.22) and with SRS spectrum (7p12.1 and 7p15.3-p14.3) or outlined for the first time (19q13.42), providing a better definition of reported and as yet unreported SRS overlapping syndromes. All the variants involve genes with a defined role in growth pathways, and for two genes mapping at 7p, IGF2BP3 and GRB10, the association with SRS turns out to be reinforced. The deleterious effect of the two potentially pathogenic variants, comprising GRB10 and ZNF331 genes, was explored by targeted approaches, though further studies are needed to validate their pathogenic role in the SRS etiology. In conclusion, we reconfirm the utility of performing a genome-wide scan to achieve a differential diagnosis in patients with SRS or similar features and to highlight novel chromosome alterations associated with SRS and growth retardation disorders