Age and sex influence marmot antipredator behavior during periods of heightened risk

Animals adjust their antipredator behavior according to environmental variation in risk, and to account for their ability to respond to threats. Intrinsic factors that influence an animal’s ability to respond to predators (e.g., age, body condition) should explain variation in antipredator behavior. For example, a juvenile might allocate more time to vigilance than an adult because mortality as a result of predation is often high for this age class; however, the relationship between age/vulnerability and antipredator behavior is not always clear or as predicted. We explored the influence of intrinsic factors on yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris) antipredator behavior using data pooled from 4 years of experiments. We hypothesized that inherently vulnerable animals (e.g., young, males, and individuals in poor condition) would exhibit more antipredator behavior prior to and immediately following conspecific alarm calls. As expected, males and yearlings suppressed foraging more than females and adults following alarm call playbacks. In contrast to predictions, animals in better condition respond more than animals in below average condition. Interestingly, these intrinsic properties did not influence baseline time budgets; animals of all ages, sexes, and condition levels devoted comparable amounts of time to foraging prior to alarm calls. Our results support the hypothesis that inherent differences in vulnerability influence antipredator behavior; furthermore, it appears that a crucial, but poorly acknowledged, interaction exists between risk and state-dependence. Elevated risk may be required to reveal the workings of state-dependent behavior, and studies of antipredator behavior in a single context may draw incomplete conclusions about age- or sex-specific strategies

Do Lions Panthera leo Actively Select Prey or Do Prey Preferences Simply Reflect Chance Responses via Evolutionary Adaptations to Optimal Foraging?

Research on coursing predators has revealed that actions throughout the predatory behavioral sequence (using encounter rate, hunting rate, and kill rate as proxy measures of decisions) drive observed prey preferences. We tested whether similar actions drive the observed prey preferences of a stalking predator, the African lion Panthera leo. We conducted two 96 hour, continuous follows of lions in Addo Elephant National Park seasonally from December 2003 until November 2005 (16 follows), and compared prey encounter rate with prey abundance, hunt rate with prey encounter rate, and kill rate with prey hunt rate for the major prey species in Addo using Jacobs' electivity index. We found that lions encountered preferred prey species far more frequently than expected based on their abundance, and they hunted these species more frequently than expected based on this higher encounter rate. Lions responded variably to non-preferred and avoided prey species throughout the predatory sequence, although they hunted avoided prey far less frequently than expected based on the number of encounters of them. We conclude that actions of lions throughout the predatory behavioural sequence, but particularly early on, drive the prey preferences that have been documented for this species. Once a hunt is initiated, evolutionary adaptations to the predator-prey interactions drive hunting success

How Immunocontraception Can Contribute to Elephant Management in Small, Enclosed Reserves: Munyawana Population as a Case Study

Immunocontraception has been widely used as a management tool to reduce population growth in captive as well as wild populations of various fauna. We model the use of an individual-based rotational immunocontraception plan on a wild elephant, Loxodonta africana, population and quantify the social and reproductive advantages of this method of implementation using adaptive management. The use of immunocontraception on an individual, rotational basis stretches the inter-calving interval for each individual female elephant to a management-determined interval, preventing exposing females to unlimited long-term immunocontraception use (which may have as yet undocumented negative effects). Such rotational immunocontraception can effectively lower population growth rates, age the population, and alter the age structure. Furthermore, such structured intervention can simulate natural process such as predation or episodic catastrophic events (e.g., drought), which regulates calf recruitment within an abnormally structured population. A rotational immunocontraception plan is a feasible and useful elephant population management tool, especially in a small, enclosed conservation area. Such approaches should be considered for other long-lived, social species in enclosed areas where the long-term consequences of consistent contraception may be unknown

Effects of Wolves on Elk and Cattle Behaviors: Implications for Livestock Production and Wolf Conservation

BACKGROUND: In many areas, livestock are grazed within wolf (Canis lupus) range. Predation and harassment of livestock by wolves creates conflict and is a significant challenge for wolf conservation. Wild prey, such as elk (Cervus elaphus), perform anti-predator behaviors. Artificial selection of cattle (Bos taurus) might have resulted in attenuation or absence of anti-predator responses, or in erratic and inconsistent responses. Regardless, such responses might have implications on stress and fitness. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We compared elk and cattle anti-predator responses to wolves in southwest Alberta, Canada within home ranges and livestock pastures, respectively. We deployed satellite- and GPS-telemetry collars on wolves, elk, and cattle (n = 16, 10 and 78, respectively) and measured seven prey response variables during periods of wolf presence and absence (speed, path sinuosity, time spent head-up, distance to neighboring animals, terrain ruggedness, slope and distance to forest). During independent periods of wolf presence (n = 72), individual elk increased path sinuosity (Z = -2.720, P = 0.007) and used more rugged terrain (Z = -2.856, P = 0.004) and steeper slopes (Z = -3.065, P = 0.002). For cattle, individual as well as group behavioral analyses were feasible and these indicated increased path sinuosity (Z = -2.720, P = 0.007) and decreased distance to neighbors (Z = -2.551, P = 0.011). In addition, cattle groups showed a number of behavioral changes concomitant to wolf visits, with variable direction in changes. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our results suggest both elk and cattle modify their behavior in relation to wolf presence, with potential energetic costs. Our study does not allow evaluating the efficacy of anti-predator behaviors, but indicates that artificial selection did not result in their absence in cattle. The costs of wolf predation on livestock are often compensated considering just the market value of the animal killed. However, society might consider refunding some additional costs (e.g., weight loss and reduced reproduction) that might be associated with the changes in cattle behaviors that we documented

The global decline of cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and what it means for conservation

Establishing and maintaining protected areas (PAs) are key tools for biodiversity conservation. However, this approach is insufficient for many species, particularly those that are wide-ranging and sparse. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus exemplifies such a species and faces extreme challenges to its survival. Here, we show that the global population is estimated at ∼7,100 individuals and confined to 9% of its historical distributional range. However, the majority of current range (77%) occurs outside of PAs, where the species faces multiple threats. Scenario modeling shows that, where growth rates are suppressed outside PAs, extinction rates increase rapidly as the proportion of population protected declines. Sensitivity analysis shows that growth rates within PAs have to be high if they are to compensate for declines outside. Susceptibility of cheetah to rapid decline is evidenced by recent rapid contraction in range, supporting an uplisting of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List threat assessment to endangered. Our results are applicable to other protection-reliant species, which may be subject to systematic underestimation of threat when there is insufficient information outside PAs. Ultimately, conserving many of these species necessitates a paradigm shift in conservation toward a holistic approach that incentivizes protection and promotes sustainable human–wildlife coexistence across large multiple-use landscapes

Wolves can suppress goodwill for leopards: Patterns of human-predator coexistence in northeastern Iran

Mammalian carnivores often cause problems for people by preying on domestic stock. Exploring the factors that affect people's attitudes to predators, in particular the circumstances when some degree of loss is tolerated, is needed for developing predator management plans. When more than one species of predator is involved, there may be unexpected interactive effects in shaping people's tolerance. We addressed this hypothesis in a west Asian multi-predator montane landscape with high density of both wild ungulates and livestock harboring two large predators, Persian leopard and grey wolf. A semi-structured questionnaire survey of herders residing around Tandoureh, Salouk and Sarigol National Parks, northeastern Iran was carried out. The perceived role of leopards in depredation was negligible compared with that of wolves which were reported to be more frequent stock raiders and responsible for an average of 5.7 times more annual losses per herd by than were leopards. Non-predatory causes of mortality, particularly diseases, were clearly the major threat to livestock. Interviewed herders showed different attitudes toward each predator. Regardless of any recent occurrence of stock raiding by wolves, they were predominantly considered negatively. Although people showed mainly positive attitudes toward leopards, respondents who reported more wolf attacks tended to have more negative attitudes toward leopards. Hence, in multiple predator ecosystems, peoples' attitudes toward each species may be affected by the perceived activity of other predators. Often neglected in conservation programs, this phenomenon is clearly important in sustaining people tolerance particularly if endangered large predators are involved

Persian leopard predation patterns and kill rates in the Iran–Turkmenistan borderland

Describing predation patterns and especially estimating kill and consumption rates is essential for understanding the functional responses of predators. An understanding of the carrying capacity of the landscape, based on prey availability, also helps to formulate recovery plans for persecuted species. We studied the feeding behavior of the Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Tandoureh National Park (355 km2) in northeastern Iran, near the Turkmenistan border. Between September 2014 and May 2017, we collared and monitored 6 adult leopards (5 males and 1 female) using GPS-satellite Iridium collars. We investigated 310 clusters of fixes as likely to be kill sites. In total, 130 kills were identified to species, suggesting a mean kill rate of approximately 3.3 ± 0.3 (SE) kills/month per adult male leopard, which is higher than reported by most previous studies. The leopards varied considerably in the time they spent outside the national park; only 1 individual appeared to subsist mainly by raiding livestock. The availability of medium-sized ungulates at adequate densities is likely to be important for future leopard conservation efforts. The management of problem individuals also may promote coexistence of humans and leopards, even in prey-rich areas

Persian leopard predation patterns and kill rates in the Iran–Turkmenistan borderland

Describing predation patterns and especially estimating kill and consumption rates is essential for understanding the functional responses of predators. An understanding of the carrying capacity of the landscape, based on prey availability, also helps to formulate recovery plans for persecuted species. We studied the feeding behavior of the Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Tandoureh National Park (355 km2) in northeastern Iran, near the Turkmenistan border. Between September 2014 and May 2017, we collared and monitored 6 adult leopards (5 males and 1 female) using GPS-satellite Iridium collars. We investigated 310 clusters of fixes as likely to be kill sites. In total, 130 kills were identified to species, suggesting a mean kill rate of approximately 3.3 ± 0.3 (SE) kills/month per adult male leopard, which is higher than reported by most previous studies. The leopards varied considerably in the time they spent outside the national park; only 1 individual appeared to subsist mainly by raiding livestock. The availability of medium-sized ungulates at adequate densities is likely to be important for future leopard conservation efforts. The management of problem individuals also may promote coexistence of humans and leopards, even in prey-rich areas

Reply to: Can wolves suppress goodwill for leopards? Need for further evidence

In our recent paper (Farhadinia et al. 2017) we reported some observations concerning 23 attitudes to large predators in northeaster Iran. One of our findings was that attitudes to 24 leopards were more negative among respondents reporting more stock loss to wolves. We 25 speculated that measures to reduce conflict with wolves might therefore be beneficial for 26 leopard conservation. Ghasemi and Kyle (2017) argue that our interpretation is spurious, and 27 that our approach provides a ‘poor foundation for future research’