Community participation in bureaucratic organizations: Principles and strategies

The present paper points out that there are tasks that primary groups perform better than bureaucracies and those that bureaucracies perform better than primary groups. Both types of tasks are very interdependent so that sometimes primary group tasks must be performed within the boundaries of the bureaucratic organization. The argument is made that when primary groups intervene in bureaucracies, they can do so directly in non-expert tasks without lowering the effectiveness of the bureaucratic organization. When they intervene in expert aspects, they should do so indirectly through an expert advocate. However, in all intervention the primary group must take into account that its structure is contradictory to that of the bureaucracy and, therefore, it must keep as much distance as possible—consistent with its ability to intervene. From this analysis we derive a series of hypotheses suggesting when the community might ideally use the bureaucracy's own experts, when the community must hire its own experts, when the community should use mass media, strikes, indigenous workers, etc. It is suggested that the multitudinous possibilities for linkages can all be derived from a few basic underlying dimensions of the situation. Cet article montre qu'il existe certaines tâches que les groupes primaires accomplissent mieux que les bureaucraties, et certaines autres qu'accomplissent mieux les bureaucraties. Les deux sortes de tâches sont interdépendentes; donc parfois les tâches des groupes primaires doivent s'accomplir parmi les organisations bureaucratiques. Les auteurs soutiennent que les groupes primaires peuvent intervenir dans les bureaucraties en complétant les tâches non-expertes sans réduire l'efficacité de l'organisation bureaucratique. Quands ils participent à certains sujets experts, ils devraient se munir d'un agent expert. Mais dans toute intervention le groupe primaire doit se rendre compte que sa structure contredit celle de la bureaucratie et que, par conséquent, il doit se tenir autant à distance que possible par rapport à sa compétence d'intervention. De cette analyse proviennent des hypothèses qui indiquent quand une communauté peut se servir le mieux du personnel expert d'une bureaucratie, quand la communauté doit engager des experts, quand la communauté doit se servir des mass média, des grèves, des ouvriers indigènes, etc. Les nombreuses possibilités de liaisons proviennent toutes de quelques dimensions fondamentales de la situation.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/42934/1/10780_2005_Article_BF02214879.pd

Community Mental Health Centers as Human Service Organizations

Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/67333/2/10.1177_000276428502800506.pd

Parental health limitations, caregiving and loneliness among women with widowed parents: longitudinal eveidence from France

We investigate how daughters’ feelings of loneliness are impacted when widowed parents develop health limitations, and when daughters take on personal care tasks in response. Using longitudinal data from daughters of widowed parents drawn from the French Family and Intergenerational Relationships Study (ERFI, 1485 observations nested in 557 daughters), we assess (a) whether health limitations of widowed parents are associated with daughters’ feelings of loneliness regardless of whether or not daughters provide personal care and (b) whether there is an effect of care provision on loneliness that cannot be explained by parental health limitations. Fixed effect regression analyses show that widowed parents’ health limitations were associated with raised feelings of loneliness among their daughters. No significant additional effect of providing personal care to a widowed parent was found. Prior research on the impact of health limitations of older parents on the lives of their adult–children has focused mostly on issues related to informal caregiving. Our findings suggest that more attention to the psychosocial impact of parental health limitations—net of actual caregiving—on adult children’s lives is warranted

O problema metodológico em educação sanitária

Em qualquer programa social, de parte de órgãos públicos ou privados, coloca-se a questão de como coordenar as relações agência-clientela, de maneira a harmonizar a política e os objetivos da agência com os interêsses e necessidades da clientela. LITWAK & MEYER, ¹ postularam que essa coordenação é função da distância social correta entre agência-clientela. Assim, para que os objetivos da agência sejam alcançados, tendo em vista uma &laquo;resposta&raquo; da clientela, é necessário criar e manter entre ambas uma distância tal que nem venham a se confundir (identificação), nem percam de todo o contacto (isolamento). Essa distância &laquo;ideal&raquo; seria criada e mantida pela aplicação, discriminada, de uma série de mecanismos de enlace, diferentes em iniciativa, intensidade, perícia e cobertura (perito participante, líder natural, agência local, associação voluntária, mensageiro comum, meios de comunicação social, autoridade formal e função delegada). Assim, conforme a distância social pré-existente (que implica em definir o grau de acôrdo ou desacôrdo entre a agência e a clientela, no tocante a atitudes e valores), os objetivos do programa (que implica em analisar o conteúdo da mensagem a ser levada à clientela, que pode ir de simples informação até a mudança de padrões culturais) e, ainda, as características burocráticas da agência interessada (que devem ser adequadas ao tipo de trabalho a ser realizado, dado às limitações inerentes às diferentes estruturas), poderemos aplicar determinados mecanismos de coordenação, com probabilidades de êxito previstas para os diferentes casos. Acreditamos que a preconizada integração das Ciências Sociais, Educacionais e Administrativas encontra na &laquo;teoria de equilíbrio&raquo; para coordenação agência-clientela, proposta pelos autores citados, estimulante contribuição para conseguir resultados práticos. Em relação à metodologia da Educação Sanitária, representam os mecanismos de enlace diferentes métodos, cuja escolha, na implementação do componente educativo dos programas de saúde pública, fica bastante facilitada pelos critérios propostos por LITWAK & MEYER ¹.<br>In any public or private social-addressed programme arises the question of how to coordinate agency-client relationships, in order to obtain the best results, in terms of agency's policy and aims and people's interests and needs. Two american sociologists, Litwak and Meyer, of Michigan University, postulate that this coordination is a function of the degree of social distance between agency and clientele. Thus "maximum social control is most likely to occur when coordinating mechanisms develop between bureaucratic organizations and external primary groups that balance their relationships at a middle position of social distance where they are not too intimate and not isolated from one another". These mechanisms are 1) the detached expert approach; 2) the opinion leader approach; 3) the settlement house approach; 4) the voluntary association approach; 5) the common messenger approach; 6) the mass media approach; 7) the formal authority approach and 8) the delegated function approach, all of them with differential power of initiative, intensity, focused expertise and coverage. All the different mechanisms of coordination should be used according to the degree of social distance between agency and clientele, which means that in dealing with external groups the agency must decide whether they are supporting ones (same values of the agency, informed and organized), resistent ones (deviant values and organized), or a mixture tipe (some deviant, some conforming or with the desired values, but not organized or lacks knowledge). The agencies which are to deal with groups must not just select the appropriate mechanisms, but ought to have themselves the desired structure to facilitate the coordination, according to the cases. Besides that, the objectives of their programmes shall be analised, whether they are pure informative-content objectives or culture change-content objectives. We believe that the "balance theory of coordination between bureaucratic organizations and external primary groups", as the authors call it, is an important contribution to the intended integration of the Social Sciences with the Educational and Administrative ones. In the field of Health Education methodology, it gives a more sound criterium to choose the appropriate methods in dealing with people, according to the content of our message and the characteristics of the clientele concerned, without forgeting the bureaucratic structures of our own agencies