Regulatory T cells in the pathogenesis of graves' disease

Maintaining a delicate balance between the prompt immune response to pathogens and tolerance towards self-antigens and commensals is crucial for health. T regulatory (Treg) cells are pivotal in preserving self-tolerance, serving as negative regulators of inflammation through the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-2 neutralization, and direct suppression of effector T cells. Graves' disease (GD) is a thyroid-specific autoimmune disorder primarily attributed to the breakdown of tolerance to the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor. Given the limitations of currently available GD treatments, identifying potential pathogenetic factors for pharmacological targeting is of paramount importance. Both functional impairment and frequency reduction of Tregs seem likely in GD pathogenesis. Genome-wide association studies in GD have identified polymorphisms of genes involved in Tregs' functions, such as CD25 (interleukin 2 receptor), and Forkhead box protein P3 (FOXP3). Clinical studies have reported both functional impairment and a reduction in Treg frequency or suppressive actions in GD, although their precise involvement remains a subject of debate. This review begins with an overview of Treg phenotype and functions, subsequently delves into the pathophysiology of GD and into the existing literature concerning the role of Tregs and the balance between Tregs and T helper 17 cells in GD, and finally explores the ongoing studies on target therapies for GD

Peripheral immunity in Parkinson\u2019s disease

Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder among elderly population and it is characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra, presence of \u3b1-synuclein rich intraneuronal inclusions (Lewy bodies), and microglial activation. To date, exact cause remains unknown and the mechanism of neurons death uncertain. It is typically considered as a disease of central nervous system. Nevertheless, numerous evidences testify undoubtedly about the principal role of neuroinflammation in progression of PD. Neuroinflammation is mainly associated with presence of activated microglia in brain and elevated levels of cytokine levels in CNS. In addition, active participation of immune system has been noted, such as, elevated levels of cytokine levels in blood, the presence of auto antibodies, and the infiltration of T cell in CNS. Emerging evidence suggests that CD4+ T lymphocytes contribute to neuroinflammation in PD. Since the mainstay of PD treatment is DA-substitution therapy and DA is an established transmitter connecting nervous and immune systems, we have examined the changes in the pool of different subtypes of CD4+ T lymphocytes in patients and in healthy subjects, with specific regard to dopaminergic receptor (DR) expression. In addition, several in vitro experiments were performed in order to establish potential changes in function of CD4+ T cells. Obtained results regarding the complex phenotypic and functional profile of CD4+ T cell subsets in PD patients strengthen the evidence that peripheral adaptive immunity is involved in PD and represents a target for the preclinical and clinical assessment of novel immunomodulating therapeutics

Peripheral immunity in Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder among elderly population and it is characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra, presence of α-synuclein rich intraneuronal inclusions (Lewy bodies), and microglial activation. To date, exact cause remains unknown and the mechanism of neurons death uncertain. It is typically considered as a disease of central nervous system. Nevertheless, numerous evidences testify undoubtedly about the principal role of neuroinflammation in progression of PD. Neuroinflammation is mainly associated with presence of activated microglia in brain and elevated levels of cytokine levels in CNS. In addition, active participation of immune system has been noted, such as, elevated levels of cytokine levels in blood, the presence of auto antibodies, and the infiltration of T cell in CNS. Emerging evidence suggests that CD4+ T lymphocytes contribute to neuroinflammation in PD. Since the mainstay of PD treatment is DA-substitution therapy and DA is an established transmitter connecting nervous and immune systems, we have examined the changes in the pool of different subtypes of CD4+ T lymphocytes in patients and in healthy subjects, with specific regard to dopaminergic receptor (DR) expression. In addition, several in vitro experiments were performed in order to establish potential changes in function of CD4+ T cells. Obtained results regarding the complex phenotypic and functional profile of CD4+ T cell subsets in PD patients strengthen the evidence that peripheral adaptive immunity is involved in PD and represents a target for the preclinical and clinical assessment of novel immunomodulating therapeutics

Peripheral immunity in Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder among elderly population and it is characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra, presence of α-synuclein rich intraneuronal inclusions (Lewy bodies), and microglial activation. To date, exact cause remains unknown and the mechanism of neurons death uncertain. It is typically considered as a disease of central nervous system. Nevertheless, numerous evidences testify undoubtedly about the principal role of neuroinflammation in progression of PD. Neuroinflammation is mainly associated with presence of activated microglia in brain and elevated levels of cytokine levels in CNS. In addition, active participation of immune system has been noted, such as, elevated levels of cytokine levels in blood, the presence of auto antibodies, and the infiltration of T cell in CNS. Emerging evidence suggests that CD4+ T lymphocytes contribute to neuroinflammation in PD. Since the mainstay of PD treatment is DA-substitution therapy and DA is an established transmitter connecting nervous and immune systems, we have examined the changes in the pool of different subtypes of CD4+ T lymphocytes in patients and in healthy subjects, with specific regard to dopaminergic receptor (DR) expression. In addition, several in vitro experiments were performed in order to establish potential changes in function of CD4+ T cells. Obtained results regarding the complex phenotypic and functional profile of CD4+ T cell subsets in PD patients strengthen the evidence that peripheral adaptive immunity is involved in PD and represents a target for the preclinical and clinical assessment of novel immunomodulating therapeutics

Microbiome and Prostate Cancer: A Novel Target for Prevention and Treatment

Growing evidence of the microbiome’s role in human health and disease has emerged since the creation of the Human Microbiome Project. Recent studies suggest that alterations in microbiota composition (dysbiosis) may play an essential role in the occurrence, development, and prognosis of prostate cancer (PCa), which remains the second most frequent male malignancy worldwide. Current advances in biological technologies, such as high-throughput sequencing, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, have enabled research on the gut, urinary, and intra-prostate microbiome signature and the correlation with local and systemic inflammation, host immunity response, and PCa progression. Several microbial species and their metabolites facilitate PCa insurgence through genotoxin-mediated mutagenesis or by driving tumor-promoting inflammation and dysfunctional immunosurveillance. However, the impact of the microbiome on PCa development, progression, and response to treatment is complex and needs to be fully understood. This review addresses the current knowledge on the host–microbe interaction and the risk of PCa, providing novel insights into the intraprostatic, gut, and urinary microbiome mechanisms leading to PCa carcinogenesis and treatment response. In this paper, we provide a detailed overview of diet changes, gut microbiome, and emerging therapeutic approaches related to the microbiome and PCa. Further investigation on the prostate-related microbiome and large-scale clinical trials testing the efficacy of microbiota modulation approaches may improve patient outcomes while fulfilling the literature gap of microbial–immune–cancer-cell mechanistic interactions

cAMP levels in lymphocytes and CD4+ regulatory T-cell functions are affected by dopamine receptor gene polymorphisms

The neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) has prominent effects in the immune system and between the immune cells, CD4+ regulatory T (Treg) lymphocytes, a specialized T-cell subset crucial for the control of immune homeostasis, are especially sensitive to DA. Dopaminergic receptors (DR) are grouped into two families according to their pharmacological profile and main second messenger coupling: the D1-like (D1 and D5), which activate adenylate cyclase, and the D2-like (D2, D3 and D4), which inhibit adenylate cyclase and exist in several variants that have been associated to clinical conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, substance abuse and addiction. We aimed to examine, in venous blood samples from healthy volunteers, the relationship between the arbitrary DR score and DR functional responses in human lymphocytes. All the samples were genotyped for selected DR gene variants (DRD1: rs4532 and rs686; DRD2: rs1800497 and rs6277; DRD3: rs6280; DRD4: rs747302 and seven 48-base pair variable number tandem repeat (VNTR)) and a DR score was attributed to each participant. We have also tested whether DR gene polymorphisms might affect Treg cell ability to suppress effector T-cell function. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing a correlation between DR gene variants and human T lymphocyte function. The main results are that both D1-like and D2-like DR are functionally active in human lymphocytes, although the D1-like DR stimulation results in stronger effects in comparison to the D2-like DR stimulation. In addition, it seems that the DR genetic profile may affect the ability of lymphocytes to respond to dopaminergic agents. More investigations are needed about the possible clinical relevance of such findings

Deep Flow Cytometry Unveils Distinct Immune Cell Subsets in Inducible T Cell Co-Stimulator Ligand (ICOSL)- and ICOS-Knockout Mice during Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

The inducible T cell co-stimulator ligand (ICOSL), expressed by antigen presenting cells, binds to the inducible T cell co-stimulator (ICOS) on activated T cells. Improper function of the ICOS/ICOSL pathway has been implicated in several autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). Previous studies showed that ICOS-knockout (KO) mice exhibit severe experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the animal model of MS, but data on ICOSL deficiency are not available. In our study, we explored the impact of both ICOS and ICOSL deficiencies on MOG35–55-induced EAE and its associated immune cell dynamics by employing ICOSL-KO and ICOS-KO mice with a C57BL/6J background. During EAE resolution, MOG-driven cytokine levels and the immunophenotype of splenocytes were evaluated by ELISA and multiparametric flow cytometry,respectively. We found that both KO mice exhibited an overlapping and more severe EAE compared to C57BL/6J mice, corroborated by a reduction in memory/regulatory T cell subsets and interleukin (IL-)17 levels. It is noteworthy that an unsupervised analysis showed that ICOSL deficiency modifies the immune response in an original way, by affecting T central and effector memory (TCM, TEM), long-lived CD4+ TEM cells, and macrophages, compared to ICOS-KO and C57BL/6J mice, suggestinga role for other binding partners to ICOSL in EAE development, which deserves further study

Complex Changes in the Innate and Adaptive Immunity Accompany Progressive Degeneration of the Nigrostriatal Pathway Induced by Intrastriatal Injection of 6-Hydroxydopamine in the Rat

We investigated changes in innate and adaptive immunity paralleling the progressive nigrostriatal damage occurring in a neurotoxic model of Parkinson\ue2\u80\u99s disease (PD) based on unilateral infusion of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the rat striatum. A time-course analysis was conducted to assess changes in morphology (activation) and cell density of microglia and astrocytes, microglia polarization (M1 vs. M2 phenotype), lymphocyte infiltration in the lesioned substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), and modifications of CD8+ and subsets of CD4+ T cell in peripheral blood accompanying nigrostriatal degeneration. Confirming previous results, we observed slightly different profiles of activation for astrocytes and microglia paralleling nigral neuronal loss. For astrocytes, morphological changes and cell density increases were mostly evident at the latest time points (14 and 28\uc2\ua0days post-surgery), while moderate microglia activation was present since the earliest time point. For the first time, in this model, we described the time-dependent profile of microglia polarization. Activated microglia clearly expressed the M2 phenotype in the earlier phase of the experiment, before cell death became manifest, gradually shifting to the M1 phenotype as SNc cell death started. In parallel, a reduction in the percentage of circulating CD4+ T regulatory (Treg) cells, starting as early as day 3 post-6-OHDA injection, was detected in 6-OHDA-injected rats. Our data show that nigrostriatal degeneration is associated with complex changes in central and peripheral immunity. Microglia activation and polarization, Treg cells, and the factors involved in their cross-talk should be further investigated as targets for the development of therapeutic strategies for disease modification in PD

Dopaminergic Receptors on CD4+ T Naive and Memory Lymphocytes Correlate with Motor Impairment in Patients with Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta, \u3b1-synuclein (\u3b1-syn)-rich intraneuronal inclusions (Lewy bodies), and microglial activation. Emerging evidence suggests that CD4+ T lymphocytes contribute to neuroinflammation in PD. Since the mainstay of PD treatment is dopaminergic substitution therapy and dopamine is an established transmitter connecting nervous and immune systems, we examined CD4+ T naive and memory lymphocytes in PD patients and in healthy subjects (HS), with specific regard to dopaminergic receptor (DR) expression. In addition, the in vitro effects of \u3b1-syn were assessed on CD4+ T naive and memory cells. Results showed extensive association between DR expression in T lymphocytes and motor dysfunction, as assessed by UPDRS Part III score. In total and CD4+ T naive cells expression of D1-like DR decrease, while in T memory cells D2-like DR increase with increasing score. In vitro, \u3b1-syn increased CD4+ T memory cells, possibly to a different extent in PD patients and in HS, and affected DR expression with cell subset-specific patterns. The present results support the involvement of peripheral adaptive immunity in PD, and may contribute to develop novel immunotherapies for PD, as well as to better use of current dopaminergic antiparkinson drugs

Parkinson's disease patients have a complex phenotypic and functional Th1 bias: Cross-sectional studies of CD4+ Th1/Th2/T17 and Treg in drug-na\uefve and drug-treated patients

Parkinson's disease (PD) affects an estimated 7 to 10 million people worldwide, and only symptomatic treatments are presently available to relieve the consequences of brain dopaminergic neurons loss. Neuronal degeneration in PD is the consequence of neuroinflammation in turn influenced by peripheral adaptive immunity, with CD4+ T lymphocytes playing a key role. CD4+ T cells may however acquire proinflammatory phenotypes, such as T helper (Th) 1 and Th17, as well as anti-inflammatory phenotypes, such as Th2 and the T regulatory (Treg) one, and to what extent the different CD4+ T cell subsets are imbalanced and their functions dysregulated in PD remains largely an unresolved issue.Background: Parkinson's disease (PD) affects an estimated 7 to 10 million people worldwide, and only symptomatic treatments are presently available to relieve the consequences of brain dopaminergic neurons loss. Neuronal degeneration in PD is the consequence of neuroinflammation in turn influenced by peripheral adaptive immunity, with CD4+ T lymphocytes playing a key role. CD4+ T cells may however acquire proinflammatory phenotypes, such as T helper (Th) 1 and Th17, as well as anti-inflammatory phenotypes, such as Th2 and the T regulatory (Treg) one, and to what extent the different CD4+ T cell subsets are imbalanced and their functions dysregulated in PD remains largely an unresolved issue. Methods: We performed two cross-sectional studies in antiparkinson drug-treated and drug-na\uefve PD patients, and in age- and sex-matched healthy subjects. In the first one, we examined circulating Th1, Th2, Th17, and in the second one circulating Treg. Number and frequency of CD4+ T cell subsets in peripheral blood were assessed by flow cytometry and their functions were studied in ex vivo assays. In both studies, complete clinical assessment, blood count and lineage-specific transcription factors mRNA levels in CD4+ T cells were independently assessed and thereafter compared for their consistency. Results: PD patients have reduced circulating CD4+ T lymphocytes, due to reduced Th2, Th17, and Treg. Na\uefve CD4+ T cells from peripheral blood of PD patients preferentially differentiate towards the Th1 lineage. Production of interferon-\u3b3 and tumor necrosis factor-\u3b1 by CD4+ T cells from PD patients is increased and maintained in the presence of homologous Treg. This Th1-biased immune signature occurs in both drug-na\uefve patients and in patients on dopaminergic drugs, suggesting that current antiparkinson drugs do not affect peripheral adaptive immunity. Conclusions: The complex phenotypic and functional profile of CD4+ T cell subsets in PD patients strengthen the evidence that peripheral adaptive immunity is involved in PD, and represents a target for the preclinical and clinical assessment of novel immunomodulating therapeutics