Assessment of Urban Cattle Keeping Patterns and Waste Disposal Mechanisms in Nakuru Municipality, Kenya

Urban livestock production has recorded significant growth in East Africa since the 1970’s. However, proximity to cattle creates potential to public health hazards due to poor hygiene caused by the presence of dung, and flies and parasites that transmit zoonotic diseases. These environmental problems from urban cattle farming threaten both human life and natural ecosystems. The objective of the current study was to assess the patterns of cattle keeping in Nakuru Municipality in Kenya, and identify cattle waste disposal mechanisms in relation to environmental pollution. Through a cross-sectional survey, primary data was collected using sets of structured and semi-structured questionnaires and focused group discussions. To select respondents to be interviewed, stratified sampling was used followed by simple random sampling within the strata. Fishers Exact Formula was then applied to get the 186 cattle keepers that were interviewed. Subsequently, descriptive statistics was used to describe the results, and Chi-square and paired t- tests performed to determine the existence of differences between observations. Results indicate that almost all cattle (80% of the respondents) were found either on owners’ and landlords’ plots. The number of cattle kept on “own land” differed (P<0.005) from that reared on “tenant/ rental” land (t183=7.95, P=0.000). Majority of the cattle were grazed on roadsides/ streets, some under zero-grazing and the rest (10.3%) under semi zero-grazing. Differences existed between various production systems, i.e., zero-grazing vs semi zero-grazing (t77=2.280, P=0.012) and roadside/ street grazing vs semi zero-grazing (t165=3.50, P=0.001). Much (52.2%) of the cattle waste was used as manure for crops, and the rest (10.2%) dumped on the streets, and dustbins, pits and compounds (10.2%).Use of waste as manure on crops differed from giving it away to neighbours, 26.9%, (t145=3.137, P=0.001).Generally, land was a limiting factor that made the cattle keepers opt for free-range grazing system, which exposed the Municipality to cattle waste. Use of manure on crops as the major method of waste disposal was inadequate as a means of disposal, resulting in exposure of the Municipality to a serious problem of cattle waste. The findings of this study provide information that the Municipal authorities, policy makers and cattle keepers would need in terms of managing the menace of cattle waste in the Municipality. Keywords: Environmental Pollution, Cattle Waste, Urban Cattle Keepin

Environmental Effects of Urban Cattle Keeping in Nakuru Municipality, Kenya

Dilemma exists in Kenya among various urban dwellers and policy makers on whether to promote or prohibit urban cattle keeping. This is due to the intricate nature of the tradeoffs between its benefits and associated environmental hazards. The current study, therefore, sought to assess environmental effects of urban cattle keeping in Nakuru Municipality in Nakuru County of Kenya. Through a cross-sectional survey, primary data was collected using sets of structured and semi-structured questionnaires, and focused group discussions. Stratified sampling was used, with simple random sampling within the strata applied. Fishers Exact Formula was then used to select the 186 cattle keepers that were interviewed. Chi-square and paired t-tests were performed to determine the existence of significant differences between observations. Results indicate that majority (90.3%) of the survey respondents disagreed that cattle waste had any environmental hazards. This was due to lack of awareness among urban cattle keepers on environmental hazards related to livestock keeping in confined areas and close proximity to human beings. Most (82.8%) of the survey respondents who practiced zero-grazing perceived bad odour/ air pollution as an environmental hazard. Similarly, those who grazed their cattle by the roadside or streets perceived bad odour /air pollution and littered streets as environmental hazards. Overall, the type of cattle rearing system was highly associated with environmental hazards. The number of cattle kept, however, was independent of the environmental hazard (P=0.191, ?24=6.109). The heaping of manure in the cattle pen was more likely to contaminate the environment than when given away or applied on the kitchen garden. There were differences in the rating of environmental hazards of cattle waste across levels of education attained by the respondents (P=0.191, ?24= 6.109). However, there were no differences between respondents who deposited cattle waste less than 10 meters away from the household and those who deposited it farther away. Generally, there was no proper cattle waste management procedures in Nakuru Municipality. It is recommended that cattle waste management be decentralized with active participation of organized urban cattle keepers and supported by the public. User pay principle should also be applied whereby urban cattle keepers pay a determined fee for cattle waste collection. This would assist in the sustainability of the decentralized service. The findings in the current study are useful for policy formulation on the management of cattle waste and associated environmental hazards in the Municipality and other areas with similar circumstances. Keywords: Environmental Hazards, Urban Cattle Keeping, Cattle waste, Nakuru, Keny

Determination of Major Ion Concentration and Ionic Strength of Saline Water: A Case Study of Lakes; Nakuru, Bogoria-Kenya and Nata Saltpan Sanctuary –Botswana

Lakes Nakuru, Bogoria and Nata salt pan are of great ecological and economic importance. They are home to one of the world’s renowned bird sanctuaries with over 400 bird species, lesser flamingoes and breeding ground for a host of water birds including pelicans and flamingoes. These aquatic ecosystems are however; threatened by environmental pollution mainly due to anthropogenic activities in the catchment basins. The current study therefore, sought to determine the concentration of individual ions of saline waters and ionic strength in Lake Nakuru, Lake Bogoria (Kenya) and Nata Saltpan Sanctuary (Botswana) so as to form the baseline information for periodic monitoring and remediation of such aquatic saline systems amid the environmental pollution. Identification of individual dissolved ions can also be used as an indicator of the source of pollution. Samples were collected during the dry season by stratified sampling technique using Van Dorn Sampler. Water temperatures were generally high and consistent with the ambient air temperatures and pH values were 10.55±0.09, 10.15±0.18 and 9.97±0.33 for Nakuru, Bogoria and Nata saltpan respectively. Mean conductivity of values of 47.77±0.78, 62.50±0.37 and 12.79±0.33 were recorded for Lakes Nakuru, Bogoria and Nata saltpans respectively. Cation concentration were dominated by Na+ followed by K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ and significant amount of trace anions in Lake Nakuru, Bogoria and Nata saltpan. Ionic strength for lakes Nakuru, Bogoria and Nata saltpan waters was 0.166, 0.195 and 0.059 M respectively. The findings of the study showed high level of ions in lakes Nakuru and Bogoria compared to Nata Saltpan. This was attributed to high agricultural and industrial activities in the catchment area. Key Words: Salinity, Conductivity, Ionic strength, Pollution, Water

Drivers of sustainable intensification in Kenyan rural and peri-urban vegetable production

Sustainable intensification promotes environmentally sound and productive agriculture. However, use of sustainable intensification practices (SIPs) is low in many sub-Sharan African countries. This study examined the adoption of SIPs in Kenyan rural and peri-urban vegetable production to understand the scale of and underlying factors in the use of SIPs. A multistage sampling technique was employed to randomly select 685 rural and peri-urban vegetable farm households. Household data was then collected and anaylsed for four practices namely improved irrigation, integrated soil fertility, organic manure and crop diversification using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. A multivariate probit model was run to model simultaneous interdependent adoption decisions. Adoption of organic manure and African indigenous vegetables (AIV) diversification was high in both rural and peri-urban areas. However, adoption of improved irrigation systems and integrated soil fertility management was low, and even significantly lower in rural areas than in peri-urban areas (p < 0.041). Similarly, adoption intensity of SIPs was lower in rural areas than in peri-urban areas. Furthermore, the findings also show complementarities and substitutabilities between SIPs. Market integration, the farm location and household income were the major factors heavily influencing the adoption of most SIPs. Policies and programmes that seek to build household financial capital base and integrate farm households into effective and efficient vegetable markets need to be formulated and implemented in order to enhance adoption of SIPs in AIV production

Livelihood and climate trade-offs in Kenyan peri-urban vegetable production

Trade-offs between livelihood and environmental outcomes due to agricultural intensification in sub-Saharan Africa are uncertain. The present study measured yield, economic performance and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in African indigenous vegetable (AIV) production to investigate the optimal nutrient management strategies. In order to achieve this, an on-farm experiment with four treatments – (1) 40 kg N/ha diammonium phosphate (DAP), (2) 10 t/ha cattle manure, (3) 20 kg N/ha DAP and 5 t/ha cattle manure and (4) a no-N input control – was performed for two seasons. Yields and N2O emissions were directly measured with subsampling and static chambers/gas chromatography, respectively. Economic outcomes were estimated from semi-structured interviews (N = 12). Trade-offs were quantified by calculating N2O emissions intensity (N2OI) and N2O emissions economic intensity (N2OEI). The results indicate that, DAP alone resulted at least 14% greater yields, gross margin and returns to labour in absolute terms but had the highest emissions (p = 0.003). Productivity-climate trade-offs, expressed as N2OI, were statistically similar for DAP and mixed treatments. However, N2OEI was minimized under mixed management (p = 0.0004) while maintaining productivity and gross margins. We therefore conclude that soil fertility management strategies that mix inorganic and organic source present a pathway to sustainable intensification in AIV production. Future studies of GHG emissions in crop production need to consider not only productivity but economic performance when considering trade-offs

Adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies in Tanzania

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is agriculture that increases productivity, improves resilience, and mitigates climate change. Smallholder adoption of farming technology is necessary to speed the transition to CSA. Here, we assessed the determinants of adoption of five technologies that can help achieve some of the CSA outcomes in smallholder farms in Tanzania. They included crop and livestock diversity, irrigation, application of chemical fertilizers, and agroforestry. Using data collected from 821 farming households, a multivariate probit model was employed to evaluate the determinants of adoption, allowing for examination of synergies and trade-offs between the technologies. Application of chemical fertilizers was fairly well adopted (34% of farmers), while irrigation was least adopted (26%). Some technologies, including crop diversity and irrigation as well as application of chemical fertilizer and agro-forestry, complemented each other. Trade-offs were observed between livestock diversity and irrigation. Female control of farm resources, farm location, and household resources were major determinants of adoption. We, therefore, recommend strategies that seeks to enhance building household resource as pathway for improved adoption of new technologies