The elusive nature of the blocking effect: 15 failures to replicate

With the discovery of the blocking effect, learning theory took a huge leap forward, because blocking provided a crucial clue that surprise is what drives learning. This in turn stimulated the development of novel association-formation theories of learning. Eventually, the ability to explain blocking became nothing short of a touchstone for the validity of any theory of learning, including propositional and other nonassociative theories. The abundance of publications reporting a blocking effect and the importance attributed to it suggest that it is a robust phenomenon. Yet, in the current article we report 15 failures to observe a blocking effect despite the use of procedures that are highly similar or identical to those used in published studies. Those failures raise doubts regarding the canonical nature of the blocking effect and call for a reevaluation of the central status of blocking in theories of learning. They may also illustrate how publication bias influences our perspective toward the robustness and reliability of seemingly established effects in the psychological literature

A review on mental imagery in fear conditioning research 100 years since the 'Little Albert' study

Since the seminal 'Little Albert' study by Watson and Rayner (1920), fear conditioning has become one of the most commonly used paradigms for studying the etiology of anxiety-related disorders. In a fear conditioning procedure, a (neutral) conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), resulting in fear-related conditioned responses (CRs) to the CS. Whereas fear conditioning research initially focused on observable elements in the environment (i.e., CSs, USs, and their contingency) and their effects (i.e., CRs), subsequent research indicated that attention should also be given to unobservable mental events (e.g., intrusive memories of aversive outcomes) to more fully account for the symptomatology of anxiety disorders. In this paper, we review the research relating to four major research questions on the relationship between mental imagery and fear conditioning: (1) Can mental imagery substitute for actual stimulus administration? (2) Can mental imagery inflate CRs? (3) Can fear conditioning result in the installment of mental images as CRs (Le., intrusions)? (4) Can mental imagery-based interventions reduce CRs? For all these research questions, tentative confirmatory evidence has been found and these findings corroborate contemporary conditioning theories. Nonetheless, we point to several open questions and methodological issues that require further research

Human fear conditioning depends on stimulus contingency instructions

Human fear conditioning is often seen as the result of a highly automatic process that is independent of higher cognitive functions and verbal instructions. However, cumulative research findings call this view into question. In the current preregistered study (N = 102), we investigated whether the number of participants who successfully show conditioned fear acquisition depends on the instructions given to them before the fear conditioning phase. Particularly, one third of the participants were instructed about the precise contingency between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US). Another third was merely instructed that there would be a contingency. The last third did not get any instructions about the CS-US contingency. We found facilitated fear acquisition rate in the first and second group compared to the third group. Furthermore, contingency reversal instructions following the acquisition phase reversed both conditioned skin conductance and startle responses. These results highlight that researchers should systematically report the instructions given to participants in human fear conditioning studies

Human fear conditioning is moderated by stimulus contingency instructions

Recent research findings indicate that human fear conditioning is affected by instructions, particularly those concerning the contingency between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US). However, whether or not such instructions were provided to participants often remains unsaid in fear conditioning studies. In the current study (N = 102), we investigated whether conditioned fear acquisition depends on CS-US contingency instructions. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The first group was instructed about the precise CS-US contingency before conditioning. The second group was instructed to discover the CS-US contingency. The third group did not receive any contingency instructions. We found facilitated fear acquisition (using skin conductance and startle) and increased contingency awareness in the first and second group compared to the third group. Furthermore, contingency reversal instructions immediately reversed conditioned responses. Based on these results, we advise to systematically report the contingency instructions used in fear conditioning research

Induction of conditioned avoidance via mental imagery

There is a growing interest on how mental imagery may be involved in the onset and maintenance of anxietyrelated disorders. Here, we used an experimental design to investigate whether a key symptom across anxietyrelated disorders, namely avoidance, can be induced via mental imagery. Healthy participants first learned that one neutral stimulus (A) was associated with a mild electric shock and two other neutral stimuli (B and C) were not. They then learned to cancel the shock when A was presented, by pressing a button on a keyboard ('behavioral avoidance'). Next, they were asked to imagine that stimulus B was followed by the shock (i.e., without actual B or shock presentations; Experiment 1; N = 66) or they were shown B and asked to imagine the shock (i.e., without actual shock presentations; Experiment 2; N = 60). Finally, in the test phase, they were shown each of the three stimuli (without the shock) and given the opportunity to make the avoidance response. Results showed that participants tended to avoid B in the test phase in Experiment 1, even though it had never been presented with the shock but not in Experiment 2. We discuss how the findings may explain the acquisition of avoidance in the presentation of innocuousstimuli across anxiety-related disorders

Ο εκκλησιαστικός ηγέτης στη διοίκηση της Εκκλησίας

Γίνεται αντιληπτό από τα όσα διαπιστώθηκαν ότι η εκκλησιαστική οικονομία είναι αλλά και πρέπει να είναι σύμφωνα με τον Σκουτέρη (1969) «μία έκφραση πνεύματος και αγάπης η οποία διέπει την Εκκλησία και των εξ αυτής απορρέουσων αρετών, της συμπαθείας. επιείκειας και συγκαταβάσεως» όσον αφορά στην ανθρώπινη αδυναμία. Για αυτό το λόγο μπορούμε να υποστηρίξουμε ότι με την εφαρμογή της εκκλησιαστικής οικονομίας δεν επιδιώκεται η παράβαση των εκκλησιαστικών κανόνων αλλά η συγκατάβαση. Το ότι η εκκλησιαστική οικονομία αποτελεί συνέπεια της προαναφερόμενης χριστιανικής διαθέσεως και όχι κατάλυση της τάξης, διαφαίνεται από το γεγονός ότι η εφαρμογή της οικονομίας έχει πρόσκαιρο χαρακτήρα, αφού εφαρμόζεται για μικρότερο ή μεγαλύτερο χρονικό διάστημα ανάλογα με την κάθε περίπτωση, καθώς και από την περίσκεψη και τη συναίνεση μέσω της οποίας αυτή χορηγείται. Το εκάστοτε εκκλησιαστικό όργανο που εφαρμόζει την οικονομία θα πρέπει να λαμβάνει υπ’ όψιν του εάν η ενέργειά του αυτή μπορεί να προκαλέσει βλάβη ή σκανδαλισμό στο πλήρωμα της Εκκλησίας σε μεγαλύτερο βαθμό, σε σχέση με την ωφέλεια που προσφέρει ή εάν το κακό προηγούμενο μέσω της ανοχής και της επιείκειας μεταβληθεί σε κανόνα και, συνεπώς, διασαλεύεται μόνιμα και ανατρέπεται η κανονική τάξη και η ακρίβεια. Κάθε Πνευματικός, χωρίς να παρακάμπτει την ιδιαίτερη αποστολή που έχει και τους στόχους της Εκκλησίας, καλείται να αξιοποιήσει στο έπακρο κάθε γνώση που διαθέτει και να εφαρμόζει το χριστιανικό διακύβευμα, το οποίο δεν έχει νομοκανονικό αλλά εκκλησιολογικό κυρίως χαρακτήρα. Επομένως, η εφαρμογή της αρχής της οικονομίας επιδιώκει την πνευματική θεραπεία των αμαρτησάντων, την αποφυγή του σκανδαλισμού του ποιμνίου και την ειρήνη και την ομόνοια, χωρίς ωστόσο, αυτό να σημαίνει ότι δεν υπάρχουν προϋποθέσεις για την άσκησή της και δεσμευτικοί όροι από το όργανο που την εφαρμόζει. Από την άλλη πλευρά, ωστόσο, πρέπει να μην παρακάμπτεται η αρχή ότι η εφαρμογή της εκκλησιαστικής οικονομίας στηρίζεται στο σωτηρολογικό Δίκαιο των Ιερών Κανόνων, κάτι που με τη σειρά του εξηγεί και την αντίληψη ότι η παράβαση στο πλαίσιο της Εκκλησίας αποτελεί ψυχική αρρώστια, την οποία η Εκκλησία δια μέσου των αρμοδίων οργάνων – των Πνευματικών - καλείται να θεραπεύσει. Η εφαρμογή της εκκλησιαστικής οικονομίας δεν καταργεί, επομένως, την ακρίβεια των Ιερών Κανόνων, αλλά αντλώντας την υπόστασή της από το σωτηριολογικό σκοπό της Εκκλησίας μπορεί σε κάποιες περιπτώσεις να υπερτερήσει της κατά γράμμα και στενής εφαρμογής του Κανονικού Δικαίου. Όσον αφορά στην εκκλησιαστική διοίκηση καθίσταται εμφανής η διασύνδεσή της με τη διοίκηση των επιχειρήσεων σε ό,τι αφορά το εσωτερικό κι εξωτερικό περιβάλλον, τον καθορισμό των σκοπών και λειτουργικών στόχων, τη διαπραγμάτευση, την επικοινωνία, τη διαχείριση κρίσεων και τη συνεχή βελτίωση της λειτουργίας της. Απαιτούνται από τον εκκλησιαστικό ηγέτη τόσο θεολογικές γνώσεις όσο και γνώσεις σε επίπεδο μάνατζμεντ, προκειμένου να διεκπεραιώνει με το καλύτερο τρόπο προβλήματα ή ζητήματα που ανακύπτουν κατά καιρούς στους κόλπους της Εκκλησίας. Ο εκκλησιαστικός ηγέτης ως ζωντανό παράδειγμα αποτελεί έμπνευση για κάθε ενεργό μέλος του σώματος της Εκκλησίας.Ιt is understood from what was found that the ecclesiastical economy is and should be according to Skouteris (1969) "an expression of spirit and love which governs the Church and the virtues that flow from it, of sympathy. leniency and condescension ”with regard to human weakness. For this reason we can argue that the implementation of the ecclesiastical economy does not seek the violation of ecclesiastical rules but the condescension. The fact that the ecclesiastical economy is a consequence of the aforementioned Christian disposition and not a catalysis of order, is evident from the fact that the application of the economy is temporary, since it is applied for a shorter or longer period depending on each case, as well as by reflection and the consent through which it is granted. The ecclesiastical body that implements the economy should take into account whether this action can cause harm or scandal to the crew of the Church to a greater extent, in relation to the benefit it offers or if the bad precedent through tolerance and leniency is changed to a rule and, consequently, the regular order and accuracy are permanently disrupted and overturned. Every Spiritualist, without bypassing the special mission that has the goals of the Church, is called to make the most of all the knowledge he has and to apply the Christian stake, which has not a canonical but mainly ecclesiastical character. Therefore, the application of the principle of economics seeks the spiritual healing of sinners, the avoidance of scandal of the flock and peace and harmony, without, however, this meaning that there are no conditions for its exercise and binding conditions by the body that applies. On the other hand, however, the principle that the application of the ecclesiastical economy is based on the salutary Law of the Sacred Canons must not be circumvented, which in turn explains the notion that transgression within the Church is a mental illness, which the Church through the competent bodies - the Spiritual - is called to heal. The application of the ecclesiastical economy does not, therefore, abolish the accuracy of the Sacred Canons, but drawing its substance from the salvific purpose of the Church may in some cases surpass the literal and narrow application of the Canon Law. As far as the ecclesiastical administration is concerned, its connection with the business administration in terms of the internal and external environment, the definition of purposes and operational objectives, the negotiation, the communication, the crisis management and the continuous improvement of its operation becomes apparent. . Both the theological and managerial knowledge are required from the ecclesiastical leader in order to best deal with problems or issues that arise from time to time within the Church. The ecclesiastical leader as a living example is an inspiration to every active member of the body of the Church

Does an unconditioned stimulus memory devaluation procedure decrease disgust memories and conditioned disgust?:Results of two laboratory studies

Research has demonstrated that disgust can be installed through classical conditioning by pairing neutral conditioned stimuli (CSs) with disgusting unconditioned stimuli (USs). Disgust has been argued to play an important role in maintaining fear-related disorders. This maintaining role may be explained by conditioned disgust being less sensitive to extinction (i.e., experiencing the CS in the absence of the US). Promising alternatives to extinction training are procedures that focus on the devaluation of US memory representations. In the current study, we investigated whether such devaluation procedures can be successful to counter conditioned disgust. We conducted two laboratory studies (N = 120 and N = 51) in which disgust was conditioned using audio-visual USs. Memory representations of the USs were devalued by having participants recall these USs while they performed a taxing eye-movement task or executed one of several control tasks. The results showed successful conditioned disgust acquisition. However, no strong evidence was obtained that an US memory devaluation procedure modulates disgust memory and diminishes conditioned disgust as indicated by subjective, behavioral, or psychophysiological measures. We discuss the relevance of our results for methodological improvements regarding US memory devaluation procedures and disgust conditioning