Comparative effectiveness of natalizumab versus ocrelizumab in multiple sclerosis: a real-world propensity score–matched study

Background: For treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), a broad range of disease-modifying therapies (DMT) is available. However, few comparative effectiveness studies between different drugs have been performed. Objectives: This study aimed to compare the efficacy and treatment continuation of natalizumab and ocrelizumab in a real-world cohort of patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) from two German university hospitals. Methods: We performed a retrospective analysis of RRMS patients who initiated treatment with natalizumab or ocrelizumab between January 2016 and April 2019 at the German university hospitals of Mainz and Düsseldorf. Bayesian propensity score matching was conducted to correct for differences in baseline characteristics. Our primary outcome was no evidence of disease activity [NEDA-3: no relapses, no confirmed disability progression, and no magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) activity] and its subcomponents. Secondary outcomes included measurement of neurofilament light chain (NfL) in serum, analysis of premature discontinuation, and evidence of rebound activity in patients switching from natalizumab to ocrelizumab. Results: We identified 63 patients starting treatment with natalizumab and 76 patients starting with ocrelizumab. Binary logistic regression showed that treatment with natalizumab or a higher number of relapses in the previous year were independently associated with a higher risk for relapses. Patients receiving natalizumab had a higher probability of premature discontinuation of therapy (p = 0.002). After propensity score matching of the two treatment arms, 55 patients remained per group. NEDA-3 after 30 months of follow-up was reached by 53.1% in the ocrelizumab group and 36.1% in the natalizumab group (p = 0.177). Ocrelizumab was superior to natalizumab concerning the occurrence of relapses in log-rank test (p = 0.019). NfL levels in serum were low under both treatments. Patients who switched from natalizumab to ocrelizumab showed no increased rebound activity. Discussion: This study provides class IV evidence that treatment of RRMS patients with ocrelizumab and natalizumab show comparable effectiveness in combined endpoints, while ocrelizumab might be more effective in preventing the occurrence of relapses

Real-world evidence on siponimod treatment in patients with secondary progressive multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND: Therapeutic options targeting inflammation in multiple sclerosis (MS) have evolved rapidly for relapsing–remitting MS, whereas few therapies are available for progressive forms of MS, in particular secondary progressive MS (SPMS). The approval of siponimod for SPMS has allowed for optimism in the otherwise discouraging therapeutic landscape. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective, multicenter, non-interventional study analyzing the efficacy and safety of siponimod under real-world conditions in 227 SPMS patients. According to the retrospective study framework, data was acquired at prespecified time points. Clinical readouts were assessed every three months. Disease progression was determined as increase in expanded disability status scale (EDSS), radiological progression, or the occurrence of new relapses under treatment. For safety analyses, adverse events (AE) and reasons for discontinuation were documented. The collected data points were analyzed at baseline and after 6, 12 and 18 months. However, data were predominately collected at the 6- and 12-month time points as many patients were lost to follow-up. In a group consisting of 41 patients, a more detailed investigation regarding disease progression was conducted, including data from measurement of cognitive and motoric functions. RESULTS: Under siponimod therapy, 64.8% of patients experienced sustained clinical disease stability at 12 months. Out of the stable patients 21.4% of patients improved. Of the remaining patients, 31.5% experienced EDSS progression, 3.7% worsened without meeting the threshold for progression. Relapses occurred in 7.4%. Radiological disease activity was detected in 24.1% of patients after six months of treatment and in 29.6% of patients at 12 months follow-up. The in-depth cohort consisting of 41 patients demonstrated no substantial changes in cognitive abilities measured by Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test and Symbol Digit Modalities Test or motoric functions measured with Timed 25-Foot Walk, 100-m timed test, and 9-Hole Peg Test throughout the 12-month study period. Radiological assessment showed a stable volume of white and grey matter, as well as a stable lesion count at 12 months follow-up. AE were observed in nearly half of the included patients, with lymphopenia being the most common. Due to disease progression or AE, 31.2% of patients discontinued therapy. CONCLUSION: Treatment with siponimod had an overall stabilizing effect regarding clinical and radiological outcome measures. However, there is a need for more intensive treatment management and monitoring to identify disease progression and AE. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42466-022-00219-3

Untersuchungen zum Wirkmechanismus von Cladribin: Langfristige Modulation des Zytokinspektrums humaner peripherer mononukleärer Zellen nach kurzfristiger Cladribinexposition in vitro

Im Rahmen der klinischen Phase III Zulassungsstudie bewirkte Cladribin einen positiven Effekt auf den Krankheitsverlauf der schubförmig remittierenden Multiplen Sklerose (relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis, RRMS). Bis heute bleibt der verantwortliche Wirkmechanismus im Detail ungeklärt. Neben den bekannten zytotoxischen Effekten könnten zusätzliche immunmodulatorische Effekte einen Teil des Wirkmechanismus darstellen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es mögliche immunmodulatorische Effekte von Cladribin außerhalb des zytotoxischen Wirkungsbereichs des Medikaments zu untersuchen. Dazu wurde zunächst der direkte Effekt einer Behandlung mit klinisch relevanten Cladribinkonzentrationen auf das Apoptoseverhalten von peripheren mononukleären Zellen (peripheral blood mononuclear cells, PBMCs), CD4+ T-Zellen und CD8+ T-Zellen in vitro untersucht. Anschließend wurde ein experimentelles Model entwickelt mit dem die Auswirkungen einer initialen Cladribinbehandlung auf das langfristige Proliferationsverhalten und die Zytokinsekretion überlebender PBMCs in Abwesenheit von Cladribin getestet werden konnten. Die initiale Behandlung mit Cladribin wirkte akut zytotoxisch, übte aber keine langfristigen zytotoxischen Effekte auf das Proliferationsverhalten überlebender PBMCs aus. In diesen Zellen wurde allerdings bei Restimulation mit anti-CD3/anti-CD28-Antikörpern eine Verschiebung des Zytokinprofils zugunsten antiinflammatorischer Zytokine beobachtet. Dies zeigte sich in einer signifikant erhöhten Ausschüttung von IL-4 (Tag 9, 44 und 58, p < 0,01) und IL-5 (Tag 9, p < 0,01), einem erhöhten IL-4/IFN-gamma Quotienten (Tag 9, p < 0,05; Tag 44 und 58, p < 0,01) und einem Trend zur vermehrten IL-10 Sekretion. Es wurden keine signifikanten Veränderungen von IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-8 und IL-6 beobachtet. Somit führte eine initiale Behandlung von PBMCs mit klinisch relevanten Cladribin-konzentrationen in vitro zu einer langanhaltenden Verschiebung des Zytokinprofils zugunsten antiinflammatorischer Zytokine. Diese immunmodulatorischen Cladribineffekte könnten mitverantwortlich für die positive Beeinflussung des Krankheitsverlaufes in RRMS Patienten sein. Darüber hinaus ermöglicht der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit entwickelte Versuchsaufbau eine in vitro Untersuchung immunmodulatorischer Effekte primär immunsuppressiv wirkender Medikamente außerhalb der zytotoxischen Wirkungsbereiche. Dieser Versuchsaufbau könnte daher in Zukunft auch zur Untersuchung möglicher immunmodulatorischer Wirkmechanismen anderer MS Therapeutika genutzt werden.Cladribine is a cytotoxic drug which ameliorates the clinical course of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. In addition to cytotoxicity, the mode of action may include immunomodulatory mechanisms. This in vitro study was designed to investigate cladribine’s effects on cell function after the removal of cladribine to distinguish cytotoxic versus immunomodulatory effects. Therefore, cells were incubated in the absence or presence of cladribine (1×10-8M to 1×10-5 M) for 72 h. Cladribine was removed from the cell culture and surviving peripheral blood mononuclear cells were cultured up to 58 days to determine the immunomodulatory effects of cladribine on cell function (e.g., proliferation and cytokine release). In the long-term, brief cladribine exposure did not impair the proliferation of surviving peripheral blood mononuclear cells. However, it induced an anti-inflammatory shift in the cytokine milieu with significantly enhanced release of IL-4 (Days 9 and 44, p<0.01; Day 58, p<0.05) and IL-5 (Day 9, p<0.01), resulting in an increased IL-4/INF-gamma ratio (Days 9 and 44, p<0.01; Day 58, p<0.05). Additionally, a trend towards an increased IL-10 production was observed. No changes were found in the production of IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-8. Conclusions: In vitro cladribine exposure induces a sustained anti-inflammatory shift in the cytokine profile of surviving peripheral blood mononuclear cells. This immunomodulatory action might contribute to cladribine’s beneficial effects in the treatment of multiple sclerosis

Cladribine Exposure Results in a Sustained Modulation of the Cytokine Response in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells

<div><p>Background and Objectives</p><p>Cladribine is a cytotoxic drug which ameliorates the clinical course of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. In addition to cytotoxicity, the mode of action may include immunomodulatory mechanisms. This <i>in vitro</i> study was designed to investigate cladribine’s effects on cell function after the removal of cladribine to distinguish cytotoxic versus immunomodulatory effects.</p><p>Methods</p><p>Cells were incubated in the absence or presence of cladribine (1×10^-8 M to 1×10^-5 M) for 72 h. Cladribine was removed from the cell culture and surviving peripheral blood mononuclear cells were cultured up to 58 days to determine the immunomodulatory effects of cladribine on cell function (e.g., proliferation and cytokine release).</p><p>Results</p><p>In the long-term, brief cladribine exposure did not impair the proliferation of surviving peripheral blood mononuclear cells. However, it induced an anti-inflammatory shift in the cytokine milieu with significantly enhanced release of IL-4 (Days 9 and 44, p<0.01; Day 58, p<0.05) and IL-5 (Day 9, p<0.01), resulting in an increased IL-4/INF-gamma ratio (Days 9 and 44, p<0.01; Day 58, p<0.05). Additionally, a trend towards an increased IL-10 production was observed. No changes were found in the production of IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17A, IL-23 or NGF-beta.</p><p>Conclusions</p><p><i>In vitro</i> cladribine exposure induces a sustained anti-inflammatory shift in the cytokine profile of surviving peripheral blood mononuclear cells. This immunomodulatory action might contribute to cladribine’s beneficial effects in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.</p></div

<i>In vitro</i> effects of cladribine on cell survival of PBMCs and proliferation of PBMCs, CD4⁺ cells and CD8⁺ cells Human immune cells were stimulated with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 antibodies (a, n = 4; c, n = 6) or PHA (b, n = 4; d, n = 3) in the absence or presence of cladribine (1×10⁻⁸ M to 1×10⁻⁵ M) for 72 h.

<p>Determination of cell survival in PBMCs (a, b) was performed by standard trypan blue exclusion method. Proliferation was determined separately in PBMC, CD4⁺ cells and CD8⁺ cells (c, d) by the incorporation of tritiated thymidine. Stimulation indices were calculated as the ratios of the counts per minute of stimulated samples to unstimulated and untreated samples. Data are depicted as mean + standard deviation (SD).</p

<i>In vitro</i> effects of initial cladribine treatment on cytokine secretion of PBMCs restimulated at Days 9, 16, 23, 30, 44 and 58 after transfer into cladribine-free medium.

<p>PBMCs from healthy blood donors (n = 5) were incubated in the absence or presence of cladribine. (1×10⁻⁸ M to 5×10⁻⁷ M) for 72 h. Then cells were washed three times and transferred into cladribine-free medium. Cells were restimulated with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 antibodies for 48 h at days 9, 16, 23, 30, 44 and 58; supernatants were collected and cytokine concentrations were determined. Data are depicted as box plot diagrams. Whiskers represent maximum and minimum values. The IL-4/IFN-γ ratio was defined as the ratio of IL-4 (pg/ml) to IFN-γ (pg/ml). *: p<0.05; **: p<0.01.</p

<i>In vitro</i> effects of initial cladribine treatment on cytokine secretion of PBMCs restimulated at Days 9, 16, 23 and 30 after transfer into cladribine-free medium.

<p><b>PBMCs from healthy blood donors (n = 4) were incubated in the absence or presence of cladribine</b>. (1×10⁻⁸ M to 5×10⁻⁷ M) for 72 h. Then cells were washed three times and transferred into cladribine-free medium. Cells were restimulated with PHA for 48 h at days 9, 16, 23 and 30; supernatants were collected and cytokine were determined. Data are depicted as box plot diagrams. Whiskers represent maximum and minimum values. The IL-4/IFN-γ ratio was defined as the ratio of IL-4 (pg/ml) to IFN-γ (pg/ml). *: p<0.05; **: p<0.01.</p

<i>In vitro</i> effects of initial cladribine treatment on the proliferation of PBMCs stimulated at Days 9, 16, 23, 30, 44 and 58 after transfer into cladribine-free medium PBMCs were initially incubated in the absence or presence of cladribine (1×10⁻⁸ M to 5×10⁻⁷ M) for 72 h.

<p>Cells were washed three times and then transferred into cladribine-free medium. Cells were restimulated with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 antibodies (a, n = 5) or PHA (b, n = 4) for 48h at Days 9, 16, 23, 30, 44 and 58; proliferation was determined by the incorporation of tritiated thymidine. Stimulation indices were defined as the ratios of the counts per minute of stimulated samples to unstimulated and untreated samples. Data are depicted as mean + standard deviation (SD).</p

Immune Response to Seasonal Influenza Vaccination in Multiple Sclerosis Patients Receiving Cladribine

Cladribine has been approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its administration results in a long-lasting depletion of lymphocytes. As lymphopenia is known to hamper immune responses to vaccination, we evaluated the immunogenicity of the influenza vaccine in patients undergoing cladribine treatment at different stages vs. controls. The antibody response in 90 cladribine-treated MS patients was prospectively compared with 10 control subjects receiving platform immunotherapy (NCT05019248). Serum samples were collected before and six months after vaccination. Response to vaccination was determined by the hemagglutination-inhibition test. Postvaccination seroprotection rates against influenza A were comparable in cladribine-treated patients and controls (H1N1: 94.4% vs. 100%; H3N2: 92.2% vs. 90.0%). Influenza B response was lower in the cladribine cohort (61.1% vs. 80%). The increase in geometric mean titers was lower in the cladribine group vs. controls (H1N1: +98.5 vs. +188.1; H3N2: +225.3 vs. +300.0; influenza B: +40.0 vs. +78.4); however, titers increased in both groups for all strains. Seroprotection was achieved irrespective of vaccination timing and lymphocyte subset counts at the time of vaccination in the cladribine cohort. To conclude, cladribine-treated MS patients can mount an adequate immune response to influenza independently of treatment duration and time interval to the last cladribine administration

Status of clinical research in neurology in Germany-A national survey

Background and purpose To provide an overview on the status of clinical research in neurology in Germany. Methods German university hospitals, nonuniversity hospitals, and neurological medical practices were surveyed regarding their clinical research activities during the period 2013 to 2017. Results Fifty percent of university hospitals, 10.6% of nonuniversity hospitals, and 5.2% of medical practices in Germany responded to our questionnaire. More than 80% of the clinical studies conducted have been phase III/IV and noninterventional trials (NISs), whereas <1% have been phase I and 3.5% investigator-initiated trials (IITs). University hospitals have conducted most of the phase II-IV trials. NISs have been predominantly performed by medical practices. Fifty-six percent of the university hospitals and less of the nonuniversity institutions confirmed the implementation of standard operating procedures (SOPs). In university hospitals, on average, 11 physicians had acquired a good clinical practice certificate. Overall, 43% of all trials have been performed in neuroimmunology. Conclusions The status of clinical research in neurology in Germany is predominated by NISs and late-phase trials, potentially due to a general lack of easily accessible funding, which leads to a highly competitive environment and fewer opportunities to perform early-phase clinical trials as well as IITs. Our results indicate that there is substantial need for structured support for creating and implementing SOPs to maintain quality standards and guarantee uniformity of performance. This survey assessed many aspects of clinical research and serves as guidance for providing ideas for structured improvement of clinical research in neurology in Germany