The Evolution Of Views Regarding The Origin Of The Relief Of Central Poland

Published in: Origin of Relief of Central Poland and Its Anthropogenic Transformation in Łódź University Geographical Research, edited by. E.Kobojek, T.MarszałHypotheses, concepts, problems and methodology are vital for academic research. First of all, it is necessary to formulate a concept, ideally one which is coherent and based on simple and physically feasible premise. Then comes the time for long and tiresome verification of details and amalgamation of the new theory. Usually researchers first notice those facts which substantiate the new concept, but, in time, they identify more and more exceptions and local irregularities, which is why the concept starts losing its simplicity and the results of further research increasingly indicate a possibility of other solutions. A new concept arises and thus science develops. The appearance of new hypotheses requires scientists to maintain high level of research. Already in 1934, K.R. Popper wrote that whenever we propose a solution to a problem, we ought to try as hard as we can to overthrow our solution, rather than defend it (Popper 2002). The research conducted by Łódź geographers and geomorphologists since 1945 has offered insight into the relief and geological composition of Central Poland. The development of glacial relief and the scale of transformations in periglacial conditions have been documented thoroughly. Long discussions between the proponents of periglacial and glacial concepts have lead to a proper evaluation of the importance of individual processes of relief origin, at least to the level which is accepted today. Nowadays, Łódź geomorphologists continue extensive research of the processes which occurred in the Vistulian in periglacial and glacial environments a theme which is covered in the study herein by D. Dzieduszyńska et al. (2014). New directions of research include the influence of human activity on geomorphological processes and transformation of relief (Twardy et al. 2014)

Mała rzeka w przestrzeni miejskiej – ewolucja relacji na przykładzie Łodzi

The aim of this article is to present the relationship between an industrial city and a small river within the last 200 years and the contemporary development and functions of rivers and valleys. The study was conducted in Łódź (currently nearly 699,000 inhabitants). In the 19th and in the early 20th century, the spatial development of the city also caused considerable transformations of rivers and their valleys. It was only at the turn of the 20th century, i.e. after the fall of the textile industry and a rise of the focus on ecological structures within a city, that the authorities decided to repair the utilisation of rivers and valleys.Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie relacji zachodzących między miastem przemysłowym a małą rzeką w ostatnich 200 latach oraz współczesne zagospodarowanie i funkcje rzek oraz dolin. Badania przeprowadzono w Łodzi (obecnie około 699 tys. mieszkańców). W XIX i w pierwszej połowie XX wieku rozwój przestrzenny miasta był przyczyną ogromnych przekształceń rzek i ich dolin. Dopiero pod koniec XX wieku po upadku przemysłu i promowaniu ekologicznych struktur w mieście podjęto prace naprawcze w zakresie zagospodarowania rzek i dolin

Anthropogenic Transformation and the Possibility of Renaturalising Small Rivers and their Valleys in Cities – Łódź and Lviv Examples

Rivers used to serve important functions in the development of cities, and river valleys are a part of the urban space. Regardless of several centuries of anthropogenic influences large rivers and their valleys have remained the dominant elements of the cityscape. In the case of small rivers and valleys the situation has been different. The expansion of urban infrastructure often led to an elimination of rivers and their valleys from the developed area. In many cases rivers were directed down straightened concrete ditches and sometimes the locations of their channels were changed altogether. In the city centre, rivers were locked in underground channels, i.e. they vanished from the cityscape. Urban floods, so annoying for the inhabitants, usually occur within river sections which have been utilized intensively and covered with impermeable surface. Even though a river was hidden in underground interceptor pipes, a valley dip remains still accumulating rainfall. The aim of this article is to present the extent of transformation of small rivers and valleys within two large cities located on watersheds: Łódź and Lviv, and the contemporary utilization and the possibility of renaturalising them

Local Development and the Role of Small Towns in Space Organisation in Contemporary Poland

Published in: Origin Spatial Development of Contemporary Poland in Łódź University Geographical Research, edited by T.MarszałThe majority of small towns are undertaking efforts to redefine their role and position in the spatial structure of the region through finding new opportunities for growth and for improvement of local communities’ living conditions. The choice of appropriate growth strategy based on the right diagnosis of the situation, taking advantage of the opportunities and mobility of the local community will be decisive for the position of each town in the settlement network. Activation of small towns must take place on many planes – direct efforts to forward socio-economic growth and improve spatial development should be accompanied by increased environmental awareness. The main positive effects of the past two decades of transformations in small towns include greater sense of responsibility for the neighbourhood and enhanced quality of urban space, particularly the improvement of urban infrastructure and housing conditions

The influence of beaver activity on local fluvial processes in selected rivers on the Łowicz-Błonie Plain

In this article the influence of beavers activity on the fluvial processes in lowland rivers has been discussed. Beavers were introduced to the middle Rawka in 1983 and sites of their activity were found in the Bzura river in 1996. General zoological papers emphasise the fact that beavers live in burrows. Nowadays, beavers in Central Poland live mostly in lodges dug in high river banks. Detailed research has been conducted in selected sectors of lowland rivers on the Łowicz-Błonie Plain: in the regulated channel of big river (Bzura), meandering channel of a medium-size river (Rawka) and in the regulated channel of a small river (Igla). Beavers mostly influence fluvial processes and alter valley floors because they construct dams and thus create ponds in small valleys. In small rivers and valleys beaver activity results in retention of large volumes of water and produces a local rise of water level. In the case of large rivers the environment is transformed only locally in the immediate vicinity of the bank with lodges. Beaver activity in a meandering river is limited to slowing down the water-flow and weakening of lateral erosion – often only in a single river bend. At a different location beavers’ activity accelerated the cutting of a meander neck, cutting off of the bend and the creation of an oxbow lake. At a straight river, in favourable conditions, they may initiate the process of lateral erosion.Artykuł przedstawia wpływ działalności bobrów na przebieg procesów fluwialnych w rzekach nizinnych. W 1983 r. bobry sprowadzono do środkowego odcinka Rawki, a w 1996 r. ślady działalności zwierząt zaobserwowano w Bzurze. W ogólnych pracach zoologicznych podkreślany jest fakt mieszkania przez bobry w żeremiach. Natomiast zebrany materiał wskazuje, że współcześnie w Polsce Środkowej bobry mieszkają głównie w norach wykopanych w brzegu. Szczegółowe badania przeprowadzono w wybranych odcinkach rzek nizinnych w obrębie Równiny Łowicko-Błońskiej: w uregulowanym korycie dużej rzeki (Bzura), w meandrującym korycie średniej rzeki (Rawka) i uregulowanym korycie małej rzeki (Igla). Największy wpływ na procesy fluwialne miały wybudowane tamy i stawy na małej rzece. Tylko w małych rzekach i ich dolinach, działalność bobrów powoduje zatrzymanie dużej ilości wody i przyczynia się do lokalnego wzrostu jej poziomu. W dużych rzekach, środowisko jest przekształcone tylko lokalnie w sąsiedztwie brzegu z norami. Działalność bobrów w rzece meandrującej ogranicza się do zmniejszenia prędkości przepływu wody i osłabienia procesów erozji bocznej, często tylko w jednym zakolu meandrowym. W jednym przypadku działalność bobrów przyspieszyła przecięcie szyi meandrowej i utworzenie starorzecza. W dużej, uregulowanej rzece w dwóch przypadkach zaobserwowano inicjalną erozję boczną

How post-mining areas impact the spatial development and land use of cities. The case of the city of Łódź

The growth of urban populations and the development of cities was typically accompanied by the use of specific construction materials. Their kinds depended mainly on the local resources, which is why many extraction sites were established in the immediate vicinity of cities. As settlements expanded, post-extraction areas were incorporated into city limits. Those areas have had a major impact also on the direction of development. The aim of this paper is to analyse post-mining areas located within the city limits of today’s Łódź, and to assess how they influenced the city’s spatial expansion and contemporary land utilisation. The textile industry boom in the city in the 19th century resulted in a population explosion, from 190 people in 1793 to 600,000 in 1914, i.e., an increase by over 3,000 times in just a century. That entailed an extraordinary demand for construction material. For one hundred years (from mid-19th to mid-20th century) buildings were predominantly constructed using brick fired from glacial till, which was abundant on the surface. That is why brickyards and related extensive pits were established at the city’s outskirts. Extraction pits established within the belt between the city’s 1840 and 1915 limits impacted the urban areas’ development the most. Clay pits, i.e., water-filled recesses, hindered development and the planned expansion of the urban area; they constituted local obstacles. Dense development emerged along routes which ran between the pits. Post-mining areas were the cause of the chaos in the urban planning within the area which was incorporated into Łódź at the turn of the 20th century (a fact which has been often discussed in literature). Even in the 1950s developments had to avoid numerous surviving clay pits. It was only in the latter half of the 20th century that decisions were made regarding their utilisation. In general, within Łódź’s urban area between the 1840 and 1915 city limits there are various green areas, which are intertwined with residential areas or industrial/warehouse sites.The latter half of the 20th century saw the erection of high-rises made of the so-called large panels, the manufacturing of which require large amounts of sand. This material was also excavated within the city limits, though sand pits were predominantly located in the peripheries. Today, post-excavation areas are mostly occupied by green areas, fields, and wastelands. One could conclude that former post-mining (degraded) areas located within the city limits  were assigned new value and they acquired new functions, including those particularly important for people’s lives, i.e., green and recreation areas. They are important for urban nature systems, especially now, when faced with climate change.Wzrost liczby ludności i rozwój miast związany był z wykorzystaniem różnorodnych materiałów budowlanych. Rodzaj materiału zależał głównie od miejscowej bazy surowcowej, dlatego wiele wyrobisk powstało w najbliższym sąsiedztwie miasta. Rozwój przestrzenny miast spowodował z czasem włączanie w ich granice terenów poeksploatacyjnych. Obszary te miały duży wpływ także na kierunki zagospodarowania. Celem artykułu jest analiza terenów poeksploatacyjnych położonych w obecnych granicach Łodzi, ocena ich wpływu na rozwój przestrzenny miasta oraz współczesne użytkowanie gruntów. Prężny rozwój przemysłu włókienniczego w XIX w. spowodował wzrost liczby mieszkańców ze 190 osób w 1793 r. do 600 tys. w 1914 r, czyli ponad trzy tysiące razy w ciągu wieku. Rozwój ten wiązał się z ogromnym zapotrzebowaniem na materiały budowlane. Przez 100 lat (od połowy XIX do połowy XX w.) dominowała zabudowa z cegły wypalanej z gliny zwałowej powszechnie występującej na powierzchni. Dlatego na obrzeżach miasta powstały cegielnie i towarzyszące im rozległe wyrobiska. Szczególnie duży wpływ na rozwój strefy zurbanizowanej miały wyrobiska w pasie między granicami miasta z 1840 i 1915 roku. Glinianki, czyli zagłębienia wypełnione wodą, utrudniały zagospodarowanie i planowy rozwój przestrzenny miasta, czyli były lokalnymi barierami. Intensywna zabudowa powstała wzdłuż dróg przebiegających pomiędzy wyrobiskami. To tereny poeksploatacyjne były przyczyną chaosu urbanistycznego (często opisywanego w literaturze) w zasięgu strefy przyłączonej do Łodzi na początku XX w. Jeszcze w latach 50. XX w. zabudowa omijała licznie zachowane glinianki. Dopiero w drugiej połowie XX w. podejmowane były decyzje dotyczące sposobu ich użytkowania. Ogólnie można zauważyć, że w strefie miejskiej Łodzi położonej między granicami z 1840 i 1915 roku występuje dużo terenów zieleni, które przeplatają się z terenami mieszkaniowymi lub przemysłowo-magazynowymi.W drugiej połowie XX w. wznoszono wieżowce z tzw. wielkiej płyty, do produkcji której wykorzystywano duże ilości piasku. Także ten surowiec był eksploatowany w granicach miasta, ale piaskownie zlokalizowane były w przewadze w strefie peryferycznej. Obszary poeksploatacyjne zajęte są głównie przez tereny zieleni, pola i nieużytki.Ogólnie można stwierdzić, że dawnym terenom poeksploatacyjnym (zdegradowanym) położonym w granicach miasta nadano nową wartość i zyskały one nowe funkcje, w tym szczególnie ważne ze względu na warunki życia mieszkańców, czyli tereny zieleni i rekreacyjno-wypoczynkowe. Tereny te są ważne dla przyrodniczego systemu miasta, szczególnie w warunkach zmian klimatu

Geosystem wydm śródlądowych na obszarach rolniczych na przykładzie dorzecza Bzury i Neru

Inland dunes are a common form of land relief in the Polish lowlands; the distinctive feature of the underlying geosystem is the dryness of the base. High thickness of quartz sands, low-lying ground water, and soil of poor quality are qualities that support the development of pine forests. These sandy areas are particularly susceptible to human activity. Removal of forests and ploughing of the uncovered surface often resulted in stimulating aeolian processes in the past. Even in the mid20th century some dunes were blown away by wind. This process in agricultural areas should be considered as a threat and, therefore, it is important to utilise dunes properly, in a manner appropriate for the existing abiotic conditions. In the basins of the rivers Bzura and Ner (central Poland) there are located rich soils intensely used for agriculture; forests occupy 0–5% of the surface area in various communes. This area has also generated inland dunes, some of which reach the height of 20 m. In the article the author analyses the forms of use and utilisation of inland dunes and evaluates the susceptibility of this ecosystem to various forms of anthropogenic impact. Modern use of dune surface within the studied area is mostly matched with the features of the natural environment. Most forms are overgrown with pine forests. However, forests occupy a small area in total and are scattered throughout agricultural land as they only occupy dunes. These forests are of a multifunctional nature – they serve the ecological, economic, and cultural functions. They fulfil the important functions of pedogensis and they protect the area from aeolian and water erosion. Finally, within the homogeneous agricultural landscape, pine forests in dunes also carry huge scenic benefit as they offer contrast to the monotony of farmlands. Soils in aeolian sands feature low productivity, they are prone to aeolian erosion, and their cultivation is uneconomic which is why today farmlands can only be found in the lower sections of dunes. Before the mid-20th century there were more cultivated lands on dunes but they were forested.Dry base has long supported settlement efforts which is why dense rural development exists in the immediate vicinity of dune forms while on dunes developments are scattered. Since the mid-20th century some dunes and their surrounding areas have featured vacation developments. Plain agricultural areas do not feature many natural assets that would support recreation and their main asset are the forests overgrowing dunes, yet in some cases developmental pressure exceeds the potential ofthe small stock of forests.Na obszarach z dobrymi glebami dominują tereny rolnicze, a rozproszone kompleksy leśne o niewielkich powierzchniach zajmują zwykle suche piaszczyste tereny, często wydmy śródlądowe, które są ważnym elementem morfologicznym w nizinnej części Polski. W obrębie wydm ukształtował się specyficzny geosystem, wrażliwy na zmiany klimatyczne i działalność człowieka. W artykule wykazano współczesne formy użytkowania i zagospodarowania wydm śródlądowych położonych na obszarze intensywnie użytkowanym rolniczo w dorzeczu Bzury i Neru. Analizowano rozmieszczenie lasów na tle obszarów wydmowych oraz wskazano funkcje tych lasów. Podjęto próbę oceny wrażliwości środowiska wydm śródlądowych na przejawy różnych form antropopresji i wskazano zagrożenia wynikające z występującego ocieplenia i częstych suszy

Natural environment and the management of eolian formations in the commune of Szadek

Sand hills, dunes and sand sheets are eolian landforms, on which specific sensitive ecosystems develop. They are characteristic feature of many areas situated in central Poland. Sandy areas with dunes are also found in the commune of Szadek. Wind-deposited sand bodies have accumulated on moraine plains, outwashes and floodplain terraces in the valleys of the Pichna and Brodnia rivers. Eolian formations have various shapes, With predominance of parabolic dunes, ridges and sand hills. They are built of fine-grained and coarser sands l-10 meters thick. Quartz dominates in their mineral composition. Sand de posits are characterized by high permeability, which is why they produce dry ecosystems. Arid sands are covered by low-class pod sols, easily eroded by wind. For that reason this type of ecosystems should remain afforested, as the cutting down of trees can result in blowing away the soil and eventually destruction of the entire formation. Such situations are known to have happened in the past. In the commune of Szadek, the majority of the dunes are overgrown with forest, which is the most advantageous solution