Seasonality in submesoscale turbulence

Although the strongest ocean surface currents occur at horizontal scales of order 100 km, recent numerical simulations suggest that flows smaller than these mesoscale eddies can achieve important vertical transports in the upper ocean. These submesoscale flows, 1–100 km in horizontal extent, take heat and atmospheric gases down into the interior ocean, accelerating air–sea fluxes, and bring deep nutrients up into the sunlit surface layer, fueling primary production. Here we present observational evidence that submesoscale flows undergo a seasonal cycle in the surface mixed layer: they are much stronger in winter than in summer. Submesoscale flows are energized by baroclinic instabilities that develop around geostrophic eddies in the deep winter mixed layer at a horizontal scale of order 1–10 km. Flows larger than this instability scale are energized by turbulent scale interactions. Enhanced submesoscale activity in the winter mixed layer is expected to achieve efficient exchanges with the permanent thermocline below.United States. Office of Naval Research (Grant ONR-N00014-09-1-0458)National Science Foundation (U.S.) (Grant NSF-OCE-1233832

Internal solitary waves of elevation advancing on a shoaling shelf

A sequence of three internal solitary waves of elevation were observed propagating shoreward along a near-bottom density interface over Oregon’s continental shelf. These waves are highly turbulent and coincide with enhanced optical backscatter, consistent with increased suspended sediments in the bottom boundary layer. Nonlinear solitary wave solutions are employed to estimate wave speeds and energy. The waves are rank ordered in amplitude, phase speed, and energy, and inversely ordered in width. Wave kinetic energy is roughly twice the potential energy. The observed turbulence is not sufficiently large to dissipate the waves’ energy before the waves reach the shore. Because of high wave velocities at the sea bed, bottom stress is inferred to be an important source of wave energy loss, unlike near-surface solitary waves. The wave solution suggests that the lead wave has a trapped core, implying enhanced cross-shelf transport of fluid and biology

Oceanic Isopycnal Slope Spectra. Part I: Internal Waves

Horizontal tow measurements of internal waves are rare and have been largely supplanted in recent decades by vertical profile measurements. Here, estimates of isotherm displacements and turbulence dissipation rate from a towed vehicle deployed near Hawaii are presented. The displacement data are interpreted in terms of horizontal wavenumber spectra of isopycnal slope. The spectra span scales from 5 km to 0.1 m, encompassing both internal waves and turbulence. The turbulence subrange is identified using a standard turbulence fit, and the rest of the motions are deemed to be internal waves. The remaining subrange has a slightly red slope (ϕ ~ kₓ⁻¹/²) and vertical coherences compatible with internal waves, in agreement with previous towed measurements. However, spectral amplitudes in the internal wave subrange exhibit surprisingly little variation despite a four-order-of-magnitude change in turbulence dissipation rate observed at the site. The shape and amplitude of the horizontal spectra are shown to be consistent with observations and models of vertical internal wave spectra that consist of two subranges: a “linear” subrange (ϕ ~ k⁰) and a red “saturated” subrange (ϕ ~ k⁻¹). These two subranges are blurred in the transformation to horizontal spectra, yielding slopes close to those observed. The saturated subrange does not admit amplitude variations in the spectra yet is an important component of the measured horizontal spectra, explaining the poor correspondence with the dissipation rate

Oceanic Isopycnal Slope Spectra. Part II: Turbulence

Isopycnal slope spectra were computed from thermistor data obtained using a microstructure platform towed through turbulence generated by internal tidal motions near the Hawaiian Ridge. The spectra were compared with turbulence dissipation rates ε that are estimated using shear probes. The turbulence subrange of isopycnal slope spectra extends to surprisingly large horizontal wavelengths (>100 m). A fourorder- of-magnitude range in turbulence dissipation rates at this site reveals that isopycnal slope spectra ∝ε²/³kₓ¹/³. The turbulence spectral subrange (kₓ > 0.4 cpm) responds to the dissipation rate as predicted by the Batchelor model spectrum, both in amplitude and towed vertical coherence. Scales between 100 and 1000 m are modeled by a linear combination of internal waves and turbulence while at larger scales internal waves dominate. The broad bandwidth of the turbulence subrange means that a fit of spectral amplitude to the Batchelor model yields reasonable estimates of ε, even when applied at scales of tens of meters that in vertical profiles would be obscured by other fine structure

Seasonality in submesoscale turbulence

Although the strongest ocean surface currents occur at horizontal scales of order 100 km, recent numerical simulations suggest that flows smaller than these mesoscale eddies can achieve important vertical transports in the upper ocean. These submesoscale flows, 1–100 km in horizontal extent, take heat and atmospheric gases down into the interior ocean, accelerating air–sea fluxes, and bring deep nutrients up into the sunlit surface layer, fueling primary production. Here we present observational evidence that submesoscale flows undergo a seasonal cycle in the surface mixed layer: they are much stronger in winter than in summer. Submesoscale flows are energized by baroclinic instabilities that develop around geostrophic eddies in the deep winter mixed layer at a horizontal scale of order 1–10 km. Flows larger than this instability scale are energized by turbulent scale interactions. Enhanced submesoscale activity in the winter mixed layer is expected to achieve efficient exchanges with the permanent thermocline below

Small-Scale Processes in the Coastal Ocean

Varied observations over Oregon’s continental shelf illustrate the beauty and complexity of geophysical flows in coastal waters. Rapid, creative, and sometimes fortuitous sampling from ships and moorings has allowed detailed looks at boundary layer processes, internal waves (some extremely nonlinear), and coastal currents, including how they interact. These processes drive turbulence and mixing in shallow coastal waters and encourage rapid biological responses, yet are poorly understood and parameterized. The work presented here represents examples of efforts by many physical oceanographers to quantify small-scale, coastal-mixing processes so that their effects might be included in regional circulation models

Recent Progress in Modelling Imbalance in the Atmosphere and Ocean

Imbalance refers to the departure from the large-scale primarily vortical flows in the atmosphere and ocean whose motion is governed by a balance between Coriolis, pressure-gradient and buoyancy forces, and can be described approximately by quasi-geostrophic theory or similar balance models. Imbalanced motions are manifest either as fully nonlinear turbulence or as internal gravity waves which can extract energy from these geophysical flows but which can also feed energy back into the flows. Capturing the physics underlying these mechanisms is essential to understand how energy is transported from large geophysical scales ultimately to microscopic scales where it is dissipated. In the atmosphere it is also necessary for understanding momentum transport and its impact upon the mean wind and current speeds. During a February 2018 workshop at the Banff International Research Station (BIRS), atmospheric scientists, physical oceanographers, physicists and mathematicians gathered to discuss recent progress in understanding these processes through interpretation of observations, numerical simulations and mathematical modelling. The outcome of this meeting is reported upon here.We also wish to thank BIRS for their financial support and, in particular, the staff of BIRS for their excellent administration of the workshop. The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support by the following agencies: Achatz, German Research Foundation (DFG) for partial support through the research unit Multiscale Dynamics of Gravity Waves (MS-GWaves) and through Grants No. AC 71/8-2, No. AC 71/9-2, No. AC 71/10-2, No. AC 71/11-2, and No. AC 71/12-2; Caulfield, EPSRC Programme Grant No. EP/K034529/1 entitled “Mathematical Underpinnings of Stratified Turbulence;” Klymak, US Office of Naval Research (No. N00014-15-1-2585) and Natural Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Discovery Grant No. 327920-2006; and Sutherland, NSERC Discovery Grant No. RGPIN-2015-04758

Direct breaking of the internal tide near topography : Kaena Ridge, Hawaii

Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2008. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Physical Oceanography 38 (2008): 380-399, doi:10.1175/2007JPO3728.1.Barotropic to baroclinic conversion and attendant phenomena were recently examined at the Kaena Ridge as an aspect of the Hawaii Ocean Mixing Experiment. Two distinct mixing processes appear to be at work in the waters above the 1100-m-deep ridge crest. At middepths, above 400 m, mixing events resemble their open-ocean counterparts. There is no apparent modulation of mixing rates with the fortnightly cycle, and they are well modeled by standard open-ocean parameterizations. Nearer to the topography, there is quasi-deterministic breaking associated with each baroclinic crest passage. Large-amplitude, small-scale internal waves are triggered by tidal forcing, consistent with lee-wave formation at the ridge break. These waves have vertical wavelengths on the order of 400 m. During spring tides, the waves are nonlinear and exhibit convective instabilities on their leading edge. Dissipation rates exceed those predicted by the open-ocean parameterizations by up to a factor of 100, with the disparity increasing as the seafloor is approached. These observations are based on a set of repeated CTD and microconductivity profiles obtained from the research platform (R/P) Floating Instrument Platform (FLIP), which was trimoored over the southern edge of the ridge crest. Ocean velocity and shear were resolved to a 4-m vertical scale by a suspended Doppler sonar. Dissipation was estimated both by measuring overturn displacements and from microconductivity wavenumber spectra. The methods agreed in water deeper than 200 m, where sensor resolution limitations do not limit the turbulence estimates. At intense mixing sites new phenomena await discovery, and existing parameterizations cannot be expected to apply.This work was funded by the National Science Foundation as a component of the Hawaii Ocean Mixing Program. Added support for FLIP was provided by the Office of Naval Research

Estimating oceanic turbulence dissipation from seismic images

Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2013. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 30 (2013): 1767–1788, doi:10.1175/JTECH-D-12-00140.1.Seismic images of oceanic thermohaline finestructure record vertical displacements from internal waves and turbulence over large sections at unprecedented horizontal resolution. Where reflections follow isopycnals, their displacements can be used to estimate levels of turbulence dissipation, by applying the Klymak–Moum slope spectrum method. However, many issues must be considered when using seismic images for estimating turbulence dissipation, especially sources of random and harmonic noise. This study examines the utility of seismic images for estimating turbulence dissipation in the ocean, using synthetic modeling and data from two field surveys, from the South China Sea and the eastern Pacific Ocean, including the first comparison of turbulence estimates from seismic images and from vertical shear. Realistic synthetic models that mimic the spectral characteristics of internal waves and turbulence show that reflector slope spectra accurately reproduce isopycnal slope spectra out to horizontal wavenumbers of 0.04 cpm, corresponding to horizontal wavelengths of 25 m. Using seismic reflector slope spectra requires recognition and suppression of shot-generated harmonic noise and restriction of data to frequency bands with signal-to-noise ratios greater than about 4. Calculation of slope spectra directly from Fourier transforms of the seismic data is necessary to determine the suitability of a particular dataset to turbulence estimation from reflector slope spectra. Turbulence dissipation estimated from seismic reflector displacements compares well to those from 10-m shear determined by coincident expendable current profiler (XCP) data, demonstrating that seismic images can produce reliable estimates of turbulence dissipation in the ocean, provided that random noise is minimal and harmonic noise is removed.This work was funded by NSF Grants 0452744, 0405654, and 0648620, and ONR/DEPSCoR Grant DODONR40027.2014-02-0