Determinants of Tree Planting and Cover Retention in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas of East Africa: The Case of Machakos County, Kenya

Rapid human population growth, increased demand for land, overexploitation and the degradation of local natural resources have led to serious socio-economic and environmental challenges in Machakos County, Kenya, East Africa. This has led to a drastic reduction in tree cover in arid and semiarid areas over the years. To reverse this trend it is important to understand the socio-economic factors that determine household tree planting and cover retention in Machakos County. Based on a structured questionnaire targeting 412 respondents as well as focus group discussions and key informants, we assessed the determinants of tree planting cover retention using a logistic regression model. The study found that socioeconomic variables that significantly influenced tree cover adoption in Machakos County in Kenya included gender (p=0.011), household size (p=0.030), and title deed ownership (p=0.023). The respondents used tree products to enhance their socio-economic resilience. In total, 58 different types of tree species were planted or retained on the farms. The major tree species included Eucalyptus saligna, Grevillea robusta, Mangifera indica, Persea americana, Croton megalocarpus, and Terminalia brownie. Based on our findings we recommend more involvement of women and youth in tree planting activities in Matungulu Sub-county

Determinants of Tree Planting and Cover Retention in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas of East Africa: The Case of Machakos County, Kenya

Rapid human population growth, increased demand for land, overexploitation and the degradation of local natural resources have led to serious socio-economic and environmental challenges in Machakos County, Kenya, East Africa. This has led to a drastic reduction in tree cover in arid and semiarid areas over the years. To reverse this trend it is important to understand the socio-economic factors that determine household tree planting and cover retention in Machakos County. Based on a structured questionnaire targeting 412 respondents as well as focus group discussions and key informants, we assessed the determinants of tree planting cover retention using a logistic regression model. The study found that socioeconomic variables that significantly influenced tree cover adoption in Machakos County in Kenya included gender (p=0.011), household size (p=0.030), and title deed ownership (p=0.023). The respondents used tree products to enhance their socio-economic resilience. In total, 58 different types of tree species were planted or retained on the farms. The major tree species included Eucalyptus saligna, Grevillea robusta, Mangifera indica, Persea americana, Croton megalocarpus, and Terminalia brownie. Based on our findings we recommend more involvement of women and youth in tree planting activities in Matungulu Sub-county

Sustainable woodland management and livelihood options in a charcoal producing region:An agent-based modelling approach

Woodland resources provide livelihoods for millions of people in Africa. Concerns about the impact of human utilization of woodlands have led to vigorous debates on woodland degradation. Ecological and socio-economic empirical data and understanding of the socio-ecological system have been synthesized in an agent-based model (ABM) to explore different woodland management options for a dynamic, semi-arid region in Kenya. In our simulations we accounted for the impacts of drought frequency, charcoal price changes, improved management practices and taxation of charcoal for a 20-year period to assess woodland changes in a spatially explicit way and evaluate the numbers of actors that can benefit from charcoal harvesting as a livelihood option. The model is based on an agent typology derived from 150 household interviews that focused on livelihood strategies and decision-making processes. Furthermore, the model integrates knowledge from vegetation plots and focus group meetings. From the model simulations we learn that favorable prices, improved management and taxation do not directly have the anticipated impact on woodland resources, as the improved conditions lead to fewer constraints on involvement in charcoal making. This reduces the positive impacts of these measures on the woodland quality but, at the same time, allows a larger number of actors to benefit from charcoal harvesting. Results show a very strong decrease in woodland area under the base scenario thereby reducing possibilities for households to supplement their incomes with charcoal making. Increased droughts and low prices for charcoal lead to early depletion of woodlands and reduction in livelihood options. Taxation stabilizes the number of charcoal producers but does not stop the depletion of woodland area. Woodland loss can only be prevented by controlling the number of charcoal makers and the amount of charcoal harvesting

The contribution of charcoal production to rural livelihoods in a semi-arid area in Kenya

Forest incomes in the form of both timber and non-timber forest products are an important source of livelihood for many communities in Africa. A major forest resource is charcoal, which contributes to the livelihoods of millions across the region. While incomes from charcoal are used to meet a wide spectrum of needs within rural livelihoods, the role of charcoal production on livelihoods of small-scale producers is not well understood. Therefore, we provide an example on the importance of charcoal on livelihoods in an agropastoralist community in a semi-arid region in Kenya. Based on a household questionnaire targeting 150 charcoal and 150 non-charcoal makers, as well as focus group discussions, we assessed the determinants for participation in charcoal production and developed a household typology based on charcoal income dependence. We also determined the role of charcoal in income equalization and poverty reduction. Our study shows that charcoal contributes about 20% of the household income in the study area. Gender, land size and the number of food-scarce months are the key determinants of participation in charcoal production. Based on the poverty analysis, we conclude that even though charcoal income does not lift the producers out of poverty, it can mitigate the impacts of poverty by reducing the poverty gap and poverty severity. Based on our findings, we recommend a multipronged approach to address sustainable rural livelihoods including a more explicit acknowledgement of charcoal production as a source of rural income. We also recommend broadening of the local livelihood base and a more active management of the woodland to ensure the sustainability of the income

Source code NETLOGO Agent-based model Kitui Woodland Management

Source code NETLOGO Agent-based model Kitui Woodland Managemen

Source code NETLOGO Agent-based model Kitui Woodland Management

Source code NETLOGO Agent-based model Kitui Woodland Managemen

Land Cover Change and Woodland Degradation in a Charcoal Producing Semi-Arid Area in Kenya

Woodlands in Kenya are undergoing land cover change and degradation leading to loss of livelihoods. Uncontrolled charcoal production, although a livelihood source for communities living in woodland areas of Kenya, leads to woodland degradation. We used Landsat imagery, field plot data and household interviews to describe land cover change and the role of charcoal production in woodland degradation. An unsupervised classification was used to determine land cover change from woodland to open/farmland, and five 16-km transects were used to investigate the extent of charcoal production in the target woodlands. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on 117 households to understand their perceptions on woodland cover change and the role of charcoal production. The overall accuracy of our classification was 86%. Woodland areas decreased by 24% between 1986 and 2014. The trend of woodland area change compared well between remote sensing and interview data. The density of kilns, a proxy for charcoal-led woodland degradation, varied across the sample plots. Despite charcoal providing a livelihood for 66% of the households, the community felt that their environment, wealth and social relations have been affected by land cover changes caused by charcoal production. Based on these results, we recommend that appropriate measures aimed at improving the productivity of agriculture, adapting to climate change and reducing dependence on charcoal for sustenance should be encouraged to mitigate woodland cover loss and degradation

Land Cover Change and Woodland Degradation in a Charcoal Producing Semi-Arid Area in Kenya

Woodlands in Kenya are undergoing land cover change and degradation leading to loss of livelihoods. Uncontrolled charcoal production, although a livelihood source for communities living in woodland areas of Kenya, leads to woodland degradation. We used Landsat imagery, field plot data and household interviews to describe land cover change and the role of charcoal production in woodland degradation. An unsupervised classification was used to determine land cover change from woodland to open/farmland, and five 16-km transects were used to investigate the extent of charcoal production in the target woodlands. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on 117 households to understand their perceptions on woodland cover change and the role of charcoal production. The overall accuracy of our classification was 86%. Woodland areas decreased by 24% between 1986 and 2014. The trend of woodland area change compared well between remote sensing and interview data. The density of kilns, a proxy for charcoal-led woodland degradation, varied across the sample plots. Despite charcoal providing a livelihood for 66% of the households, the community felt that their environment, wealth and social relations have been affected by land cover changes caused by charcoal production. Based on these results, we recommend that appropriate measures aimed at improving the productivity of agriculture, adapting to climate change and reducing dependence on charcoal for sustenance should be encouraged to mitigate woodland cover loss and degradation