The long-term development of temperate woodland creation sites: from tree saplings to mature woodlands

Tree planting is at the forefront of the current environmental agenda to mitigate climate change and tackle the biodiversity crisis. In the UK, tree planting has been a priority for more than a century and has helped increase woodland cover from a historic low of 5% at the beginning of the 20th century to a current figure of 13%. However, we still know relatively little about the long-term development of woodland creation sites (particularly of native woodlands) over ecologically realistic timescales. We surveyed a chronosequence of 133 temperate woodland patches encompassing 106 woodland creation sites (10–160 years old) and 27 mature ‘ancient’ woodlands (>250 years old), using a combination of field surveys and remote sensing techniques to quantify vegetation structural changes associated with woodland development. Woodland creation sites displayed similar vegetation development patterns to those described for other woodland systems, i.e. a gradual transition as woodlands undergo ‘stand initiation’, ‘stem exclusion’ and ‘understorey re-initiation’ stages, and became more similar to ‘ancient’ woodlands over time. Structural heterogeneity, average tree size and tree density were the attributes that varied the most among woodland developmental stages. In general, structural heterogeneity and average tree size increased with woodland age, whilst tree density decreased as would be expected. Younger sites in ‘stand initiation’ were strongly dominated by short vegetation, ‘stem exclusion’ sites by taller trees, and older sites had a more even vegetation height distribution. There was a large degree of overlap between the vegetation characteristics of woodlands in ‘understorey re-initiation’ stages and older ancient woodlands (partly driven by a lack of regeneration in the understorey); these results suggest that it takes between 80 to 160 years for woodland creation sites to develop certain vegetation attributes similar to those of mature ancient woodlands included in this study. Woodland management practices to create canopy gaps and reducing grazing/browsing pressure to promote natural regeneration are likely to accelerate this transition, increase the structural heterogeneity and biodiversity value of woodland creation sites, and enable adaptation and resilience to climate change

Regional land-use and local management create scale-dependent 'landscapes of fear' for a common woodland bird

Context Land-use change and habitat fragmentation are well known drivers of biodiversity declines. In forest birds, it has been proposed that landscape change can cause increased predation pressure that leads to population declines or community change. Predation can also have non-lethal effects on prey, such as creating ‘landscapes of fear’. However, few studies have simultaneously investigated the relative contribution of regional land-use and local management to creating ‘landscapes of fear’. Objectives To quantify the relative contribution of regional land-use and local management to the ‘landscape of fear’ in agricultural landscapes. Methods Bioacoustic recorders were used to quantify Eurasian Wren Troglodytes troglodytes alarm call rates in 32 naturally replicated broadleaf woodlands located in heterogeneous agricultural landscapes. Results Alarm call rates (the probability of an alarm per 10 min of audio) were positively correlated with the amount of agricultural land (arable or pasture) within 500 m of a woodland (effect size of 1) and were higher when livestock were present inside a woodland (effect size of 0.78). The amount of woodland and urban land cover in the landscape also had positive but weak effects on alarm call rates. Woodlands with gamebird management had fewer alarm calls (effect size of − 0.79). Conclusions We found that measures of both regional land-use and local management contributed to the ‘landscape of fear’ in agricultural landscapes. To reduce the impact of anthropogenic activities on ‘fear’ levels (an otherwise natural ecological process), land-managers should consider limiting livestock presence in woodlands and creating traditional ‘buffer strips’ (small areas of non-farmed land) at the interface between woodland edges and agricultural fields

Small mammal responses to long-term large-scale woodland creation: the influence of local and landscape-level attributes

Habitat loss and fragmentation greatly affect biological diversity. Actions to counteract their negative effects include increasing the quality, amount and connectivity of semi-natural habitats at the landscape scale. However, much of the scientific evidence underpinning landscape restoration comes from studies of habitat loss and fragmentation, and it is unclear whether the ecological principles derived from habitat removal investigations are applicable to habitat creation. In addition, the relative importance of local- (e.g. improving habitat quality) vs. landscape-level (e.g. increasing habitat connectivity) actions to restore species is largely unknown, partly because studying species responses over sufficiently large spatial and temporal scales is challenging. We studied small mammal responses to large scale woodland creation spanning 150 years, and assessed the influence of local- and landscape-level characteristics on three small mammal species of varying woodland affinity. Woodland specialists, generalists and grassland specialists were present in woodlands across a range of ages from 10 to 160 years, demonstrating that these species can quickly colonize newly created woodlands. However, we found evidence that woodlands become gradually better over time for some species. The responses of individual species corresponded to their habitat specificity. A grassland specialist (Microtus agrestis) was influenced only by landscape attributes; a woodland generalist (Apodemus sylvaticus) and specialist (Myodes glareolus) were primarily influenced by local habitat attributes, and partially by landscape characteristics. At the local scale, high structural heterogeneity, large amounts of deadwood and a relatively open understory positively influenced woodland species (both generalists and specialists); livestock grazing had strong negative effects on woodland species abundance. Actions to enhance habitat quality at the patch scale focusing on these attributes would benefit these species. Woodland creation in agricultural landscapes is also likely to benefit larger mammals and birds of prey feeding on small mammals and increase ecosystem processes such as seed dispersal

Moth community responses to woodland creation: The influence of woodland age, patch characteristics and landscape attributes

Aim Large-scale habitat creation is crucial to mitigate the current ecological crisis, but scientific evidence on its effects on biodiversity is scarce. Here, we assess how assemblages of a biodiverse group (moths) develop over time in habitat creation sites. We use temperate woodlands as a case study, and compare species assemblages in restored and mature habitat patches. We also identify local- and landscape-level attributes associated with high species richness and abundance. Location Central Scotland, United Kingdom. Methods We surveyed moths in a chronosequence of 79 temperate woodland patches encompassing woodland creation sites (20–160 years old) and mature “ancient” woodlands (250+ years old). We used structural equation models, generalized linear models and ordination techniques to quantify moth community responses to woodland creation, and degree of similarity to moth assemblages in ancient woodlands. Results Woodland creation sites harboured large numbers of moth species (212), were dominated by woodland generalists and had high species turnover. Moth abundance and diversity increased with woodland connectivity. Macromoths were more abundant and diverse in younger woodlands; micromoth specialists occurred more frequently in older woodland creation sites. Ancient woodlands had similar moth abundance/richness than woodland creation sites (except for fewer macromoth woodland specialist species), but their species composition was somewhat different. Patterns of beta diversity (low nestedness) indicated that moth species in woodland creation sites are not simply subsets of species in ancient woodlands. Main conclusions To benefit moth communities, woodland creation sites should be structurally diverse and in close proximity to other woodlands. At the landscape scale, a mosaic of woodland patches of different ages is likely to increase moth beta (and consequently gamma) diversity. Ancient woodlands and woodland creation sites each host substantial proportions of “unique” species; individual woodland patches contain distinctive moth assemblages and should be protected and valued for their contribution to regional moth diversity

Larger and structurally complex woodland creation sites provide greater benefits for woodland plants

Reforestation initiatives are underway across the world. However, we know relatively little about the ecological consequences of creating and restoring forest ecosystems, and there is a lack of studies examining the drivers of species colonisation and establishment across appropriate temporal and spatial scales to inform conservation practice. Using data from a long-term natural experiment (the WrEN project), we explore ground plant species occurrence and community composition in 102 woodland creation sites (10–160 years since planting), and 27 old growth woodlands (>250 years). We conducted field surveys to collect data on occurrence of plant species (classified into woodland specialist, woodland generalist, or non-woodland) and used Structural Equation Modelling to investigate the influence of local (age, size, woodland structure) and landscape-level (amount of surrounding woodland) attributes on species richness. Woodland generalists are readily colonising woodland creation sites to similar levels found in old growth woodlands. However, there were fewer woodland specialist and more non-woodland plants in creation sites than in old growth. Specialists and generalists were more likely to be present in larger woodlands and those with higher variation in tree size (which was higher in older woodlands) and did not appear to be influenced by features of the surrounding landscape. Some plant communities in older creation sites (80–160 years) were similar to old growth, suggesting colonisation of a typical old growth flora over time; however, some sites were shifting away from this trajectory. Specialists are slow to colonise woodland creation sites and their occurrence was low relative to old growth woodlands even after >80 years. However, woodland management to increase structural complexity may enhance the establishment of woodland plants. The lack of influence of the surrounding landscape on species occurrence is likely due to most of the study sites being relatively isolated resulting in limited colonisation. This suggests that new woodlands need to be adjacent or very near to existing woodland to receive the benefits of increased colonisation. Our results highlight the importance of creating large and structurally complex woodlands, close to existing woodlands to facilitate the colonisation and establishment of woodland plants

Larger and structurally complex woodland creation sites provide greater benefits for woodland plants

Reforestation initiatives are underway across the world. However, we know relatively little about the ecological consequences of creating and restoring forest ecosystems, and there is a lack of studies examining the drivers of species colonisation and establishment across appropriate temporal and spatial scales to inform conservation practice. Using data from a long‐term natural experiment (the WrEN project), we explore ground plant species occurrence and community composition in 102 woodland creation sites (10–160 years since planting), and 27 old growth woodlands (>250 years). We conducted field surveys to collect data on occurrence of plant species (classified into woodland specialist, woodland generalist, or non‐woodland) and used Structural Equation Modelling to investigate the influence of local (age, size, woodland structure) and landscape‐level (amount of surrounding woodland) attributes on species richness. Woodland generalists are readily colonising woodland creation sites to similar levels found in old growth woodlands. However, there were fewer woodland specialist and more non‐woodland plants in creation sites than in old growth. Specialists and generalists were more likely to be present in larger woodlands and those with higher variation in tree size (which was higher in older woodlands) and did not appear to be influenced by features of the surrounding landscape. Some plant communities in older creation sites (80–160 years) were similar to old growth, suggesting colonisation of a typical old growth flora over time; however, some sites were shifting away from this trajectory. Specialists are slow to colonise woodland creation sites and their occurrence was low relative to old growth woodlands even after >80 years. However, woodland management to increase structural complexity may enhance the establishment of woodland plants. The lack of influence of the surrounding landscape on species occurrence is likely due to most of the study sites being relatively isolated resulting in limited colonisation. This suggests that new woodlands need to be adjacent or very near to existing woodland to receive the benefits of increased colonisation. Our results highlight the importance of creating large and structurally complex woodlands, close to existing woodlands to facilitate the colonisation and establishment of woodland plants

Larger and structurally complex woodland creation sites provide greater benefits for woodland plants

Reforestation initiatives are underway across the world. However, we know relatively little about the ecological consequences of creating and restoring forest ecosystems, and there is a lack of studies examining the drivers of species colonisation and establishment across appropriate temporal and spatial scales to inform conservation practice. Using data from a long-term natural experiment (the WrEN project), we explore ground plant species occurrence and community composition in 102 woodland creation sites (10–160 years since planting), and 27 old growth woodlands (>250 years). We conducted field surveys to collect data on occurrence of plant species (classified into woodland specialist, woodland generalist, or non-woodland) and used Structural Equation Modelling to investigate the influence of local (age, size, woodland structure) and landscape-level (amount of surrounding woodland) attributes on species richness. Woodland generalists are readily colonising woodland creation sites to similar levels found in old growth woodlands. However, there were fewer woodland specialist and more non-woodland plants in creation sites than in old growth. Specialists and generalists were more likely to be present in larger woodlands and those with higher variation in tree size (which was higher in older woodlands) and did not appear to be influenced by features of the surrounding landscape. Some plant communities in older creation sites (80–160 years) were similar to old growth, suggesting colonisation of a typical old growth flora over time; however, some sites were shifting away from this trajectory. Specialists are slow to colonise woodland creation sites and their occurrence was low relative to old growth woodlands even after >80 years. However, woodland management to increase structural complexity may enhance the establishment of woodland plants. The lack of influence of the surrounding landscape on species occurrence is likely due to most of the study sites being relatively isolated resulting in limited colonisation. This suggests that new woodlands need to be adjacent or very near to existing woodland to receive the benefits of increased colonisation. Our results highlight the importance of creating large and structurally complex woodlands, close to existing woodlands to facilitate the colonisation and establishment of woodland plants

Acceptability and feasibility of peer assisted supervision and support for intervention practitioners: a Q-methodology evaluation

Evidence-based interventions often include quality improvement methods to support fidelity and improve client outcomes. Clinical supervision is promoted as an effective way of developing practitioner confidence and competence in delivery; however, supervision is often inconsistent and embedded in hierarchical line management structures that may limit the opportunity for reflective learning. The Peer Assisted Supervision and Support (PASS) supervision model uses peer relationships to promote the self-regulatory capacity of practitioners to improve intervention delivery. The aim of the present study was to assess the acceptability and feasibility of PASS amongst parenting intervention practitioners. A Q-methodology approach was used to generate data and 30 practitioners volunteered to participate in the study. Data were analyzed and interpreted using standard Q-methodology procedures and by-person factor analysis yielded three factors. There was consensus that PASS was acceptable. Participants shared the view that PASS facilitated an environment of support where negative aspects of interpersonal relationships that might develop in supervision were not evident. Two factors represented the viewpoint that PASS was also a feasible model of supervision. However, the third factor was comprised of practitioners who reported that PASS could be time consuming and difficult to fit into existing work demands. There were differences across the three factors in the extent to which practitioners considered PASS impacted on their intervention delivery. The findings highlight the importance of organizational mechanisms that support practitioner engagement in supervision

Ecological time lags and the journey towards conservation success

Global conservation targets to reverse biodiversity declines and halt species extinctions are not being met despite decades of conservation action. However, a lack of measurable change in biodiversity indicators towards these targets is not necessarily a sign that conservation has failed; instead, temporal lags in species’ responses to conservation action could be masking our ability to observe progress towards conservation success. Here we present our perspective on the influence of ecological time lags on the assessment of conservation success and review the principles of time lags and their ecological drivers. We illustrate how a number of conceptual species may respond to change in a theoretical landscape and evaluate how these responses might influence our interpretation of conservation success. We then investigate a time lag in a real biodiversity indicator using empirical data and explore alternative approaches to understand the mechanisms that drive time lags. Our proposal for setting and evaluating conservation targets is to use milestones, or interim targets linked to specific ecological mechanisms at key points in time, to assess whether conservation actions are likely to be working. Accounting for ecological time lags in biodiversity targets and indicators will greatly improve the way that we evaluate conservation successes

Future restoration should enhance ecological complexity and emergent properties at multiple scales

Ecological restoration has a paradigm of re-establishing ‘indigenous reference' communities. One resulting concern is that focussing on target communities may not necessarily create systems which function at a high level or are resilient in the face of ongoing global change. Ecological complexity – defined here, based on theory, as the number of components in a system and the number of connections among them – provides a complementary aim, which can be measured directly and has several advantages. Ecological complexity encompasses key ecosystem variables including structural heterogeneity, trophic interactions and functional diversity. Ecological complexity can also be assessed at the landscape scale, with metrics including β diversity, heterogeneity among habitat patches and connectivity. Thus, complexity applies, and can be measured, at multiple scales. Importantly, complexity is linked to system emergent properties, e.g. ecosystem functions and resilience, and there is evidence that both are enhanced by complexity. We suggest that restoration ecology should consider a new paradigm to restore complexity at multiple scales, in particular of individual ecosystems and across landscapes. A complexity approach can make use of certain current restoration methods but also encompass newer concepts such as rewilding. Indeed, a complexity goal might in many cases best be achieved by interventionist restoration methods. Incorporating complexity into restoration policies could be quite straightforward. Related aims such as enhancing ecosystem services and ecological resilience are to the fore in initiatives such as the Sustainable Development Goals and the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Implementation in policy and practice will need the development of complexity metrics that can be applied at both local and regional scales. Ultimately, the adoption of an ecological complexity paradigm will be based on an acceptance that the ongoing and unprecedented global environmental change requires new ways of doing restoration that is fit for the future