New in psychological development theories: The modification of earlier and formulation and testing of new theories and concepts

Post-moderna revolucija i stavovi o ljudskoj prirodi donose nova shvaćanja cjeloživotnog razvoja, stavljajući u žarište pozornosti ne samo kognitivne, nego i organske procese i emocije, kao i značenje konteksta i kulture. Opći vidovi promjena ogledaju se u premošćivanju razvojne psihologije i sociologije (Settersten, Jr. 1999), i u jačanju integrativnog pristupa u istraživanjima, odnosno konsenzusa da razvoj valja proučavati s obzirom na ontogenetske, kontekstualne i povijesne čimbenike. Integrativni pristup doveo je do rekonstrukcije ranijih shvaćanja razvoja (npr. propozicija razvoja, vrhunaca i krajnjih točaka razvoja, razvojne važnosti djetinjstva, stabilnosti u srednjoj dobi, zatim povlačenja u starosti, potpunog razvojnog plasticiteta, te univerzalnosti razvoja). Ojačala je ideja o aktivnom i proaktivnom konstruiranju vlastita života. Oblikovani su novi modeli istraživanja kvalitativnih promjena i nove strategije analize istraživačkih podataka koje nude sinkronu i dijakronu perspektivu razvoja. Paralelno s tim dolazi do dvovrsnih teorijskih novina. Jednu čine izmjene nekih postavki u ranijim velikim razvojnim teorijama, ne dovodeći u pitanje njihove osnovne koncepte, odnosno njihovu suštinu. Na primjer, radi se o dopunjavanju spoznaja o uvjetima i procesima koji participiraju u razvoju ili o vremenu njihova javljanja. Druga vrsta novina formuliranje je teorija i/ili modela nastalih na osnovi integracije spoznaja iz nekoliko psihologijskih grana (psihologije ličnosti, motivacije i emocija, socijalne i kliničke psihologije), ali i iz biologije, sociologije i antropologije. Nove teorije koje naglašavaju aktivnu ulogu pojedinca u njegovu vlastitom razvoju potiču široko područje istraživanja samoregulacije u osoba različite dobi, spola, obrazovanja, zdravstvenog statusa, crta ličnosti, kulture i drugih obilježja. Opisuju se tri takve teorije životnog vijeka: 1. dvoprocesni model asimilativnog i akomodativnog suočavanja (Brandtstädter i Rothermund, 2002), 2. meta-teorija razvojne regulacije, tzv. SOC model (Freund i Baltes, 2002; Freund, 2008), 3. motivacijska teorija cjeloživotnog razvoja (Heckhausen, Wrosch i Schulz, 2010). Najnoviji pokušaji sinteze tih teorija obećavaju reduciranje konfuzija u bogatoj empirijskoj građi, a imaju i poticajnu ulogu u novim istraživanjima razvoja onih fenomena kojima se tradicionalno bave filozofija i beletristika.The post-modern revolution and the attitudes on human nature bring along a new conceptualization of life-span development, focusing not only on cognitive, but on organismic processes and emotions, and the importance of context and culture. Changes may be seen in the bridging of psychology and sociology (Settersten, Jr. 1999), and in the strengthening of an integrative approach in investigations. This approach results in the reconstruction of an earlier concept of development (e.g. propositions of development, peak and the end point of development, developmental importance of childhood, stability in middle age, complete developmental plasticity, retreatment in old age, etc.). Today, the idea of active and proactive construction of one’s life is completely accepted. It formed new models of investigations of qualitative changes and new strategies for the analysis of research data that give insight into synchronic and diachronic perspectives of development. Parallel to this, new, two-sided theories appear. One consists of the modification of some earlier big developmental theories without changing their basic concepts. The other includes the formulation of new theories/models that integrate awareness from several areas (psychology of personality, motivation and emotion, social and clinical psychology), as well as biology, sociology and anthropology. Theories highlighting the active construction of one’s life stimulated numerous studies on self-regulation of people of different age, sex, educational level, health status, personality traits, culture, etc. Three prominent theories (1. dual-process model of assimilative and accommodative coping; 2. model of selection, optimization and compensation; 3. the motivational theory of life-span development) are being discussed. The article presents an attempt to synthesize these theories and their impact on the investigation of relatively new constructs in psychology

Life Regrets: Phenomenology, Conceptualization and Research

Žaljenje je neugodno kognitivno i emocionalno stanje kojenastaje kao posljedica pogrešaka u akciji ili zbognepoduzimanja akcije na putu prema ostvarenju cilja.Filozofske, ekonomske i psihologijske teorije govore o prirodii uzrocima žaljenja, za koje je utvrđeno da je jedna odnajčešćih negativnih emocija i da predstavlja univerzalnoljudsko iskustvo. Uspješno suočavanje sa žaljenjempoboljšava kognitivne procese, a neuspješno suočavanje lošeutječe na motivaciju cilju usmjerenih aktivnosti i dovodi doživotnoga žaljenja te oštećuje fizičko i mentalno zdravlje. Naosnovi uzroka i konteksta u kojem se doživljava, žaljenje jemoguće (i potrebno) razlikovati od srodnih konstrukata, kaošto su osjećaj krivnje, razočaranje i kajanje. U tome važnuulogu ima količina u akciju uloženoga napora i osjećajodgovornosti za neuspjeh akcije. Deskriptivne studijepokazuju da se najveća žaljenja javljaju zbog obrazovanja,karijere, ljubavnih odnosa, roditeljstva i samopoimanja,posebice ako su u nekim od tih područja ispitanici vidjelidobre prilike koje nisu iskoristili. Razina žaljenja ovisi ovažnosti životnih područja, ali i o socijalnim i temporalnimusporedbama. Kad u starijih osoba pregled života rezultiražaljenjem, njegov će intenzitet biti manji ako se uspoređujusa sličnima sebi (lateralno) ili s lošijima od sebe (silazno). Prisamoregulaciji žaljenja uloga internalne kontrole razlikuje ses obzirom na dob. Iznose se i ideje za moguća daljnjaistraživanja žaljenja.Regret is an unpleasant cognitive and emotional state. It appears as a consequence of mistakes (failures) in action, or of inaction on the way to achieve the goals. Philosophical, economic and psychological theories argue about the nature and causes of regret, one of the most frequent negative emotions. Successful coping with regret improves cognitive processes, but unsuccessful coping has a negative influence on motivation for directive action, resulting in life regrets and worse physical and mental health. The causes and context of experience of regret enable differences between regret on the one, and other negative emotions (disappointment, remorse, envy) on the other side. For this distinction, very important are the level of effort and feeling of responsibility. Descriptive studies show that the greatest regrets lie in the domains of education, career, romantic relationships, parenthood and self-concept, particularly if in some domains people perceived that they did not realize certain good opportunities. The level of regret depends on the subjective importance of the life domain, and on social and temporal comparisons. When a life review among older people results in regret, the intensity would be lower if they used lateral or downward comparisons. In self-regulation of regret, the role of internal control varies with age

Elternschaft – erlebt und praktiziert in verschiedenen Lebensabschnitten

Na motivaciju za roditeljstvo, odnosno na potrebu, želju i odluku za dobivanje djece, utječu biološki, psihološki i socijalni faktori. O njihovoj interakciji ovisi preuzimanje i prihvaćanje roditeljske uloge i kvaliteta odnosa s djecom u različitim razdobljima života. Namjera ovoga rada jest raspraviti neke posebnosti roditeljstva s obzirom na razvojne značajke roditelja i djece. U adolescenciji doživljaj i praksa roditeljstva razlikuju se od onih u odrasloj dobi. Mladima nedostaju mnogi resursi koji omogućuju istaknutost roditeljske uloge i roditeljsku predanost. U mlađoj odrasloj dobi socijalna mreža ohrabruje roditeljstvo, što pridonosi porastu značenja majčinskoga, odnosno očinskog, identiteta, koji utječe na doživljaj roditeljstva i na otvorene oblike roditeljskoga ponašanja. Doživljaj i praksa roditeljstva u zreloj odrasloj dobi povezani su s razvojem generativnosti, pa odnosi odraslih roditelja i njihove djece postaju kompleksniji. U odnosu s djecom pojavljuje se ambivalencija, posebice kad djeca nisu postigla predviđeni normativni status (završetak obrazovanja, financijsku neovisnost, sklapanje braka i dr.). U starosti, koja je posvećena rješavanju krize integriteta nasuprot očaju, aktualni doživljaj roditeljstva povezan je s evaluacijom njegovih značajki tijekom ranijih razdoblja života. Ishodi te evaluacije, jednako kao i kvaliteta aktualnih odnosa, određuju ponašanja prema odrasloj djeci te zadovoljstvo roditeljstvom.The motivation for parenting, or for the need, desire, and decision for having children, is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. The interaction of these factors determines the taking part and acceptance of parental roles and the quality of the relationship with children in different periods of life. The intention of this paper is to discuss some specific aspects of parenting with regard to the developmental characteristics of parents and children. The experience and practice of parenting in adolescence differs from those in adulthood. Young people lack many resources which enable prominence of parental roles and parental commitment. During earlier adulthood the social network encourages parenting which contributes to the increasing importance of maternal or paternal identity, influencing in turn the experience of parenting and the open forms of parental behavior. The experience and practice of parenting in middle adulthood is associated with the development of generativity, making the relationships of adult parents and their children more complex. Ambivalence appears in these relationships, especially when children have not achieved an anticipated normative status (completion of education, financial independence, marriage, etc.). In old age, which is dedicated to addressing the crisis of integrity versus despair, the actual experience of parenting is associated with the evaluation of its features during earlier periods of life. The outcomes of this evaluation, as well as the quality of current relationships, determine the behavior toward adult children and the satisfaction with parenting.Die Motivation zur Elternschaft bzw. Bedürfnis, Wunsch und Entschluss, eine Familie zu gründen, hängen von biologischen, psychologischen und sozialen Faktoren ab. Ihre Interaktion gibt den Ausschlag und bestimmt nicht nur, ob man sich zu diesem Schritt entschließt, sondern auch wie sich das Eltern-Kind-Verhältnis in den verschiedenen Lebensabschnitten gestaltet. Im vorliegenden Artikel sollen bestimmte Spezifika des Elterndaseins vor dem Hintergrund von Entwicklungsmerkmalen bei Eltern und Kindern untersucht werden. Elternschaft gestaltet sich in der Adoleszenz anders als im reifen Erwachsenenalter. Junge Eltern entbehren viele Ressourcen, die Nachdruck und Hingabe in der Elternrolle erst ermöglichen. Im jungen Erwachsenenalter wirkt das Netz sozialer Kontakte ermutigend auf junge Eltern und trägt bei zur Identitätsstiftung als Mutter bzw. Vater, was wiederum das Erleben der elterlichen Rolle und das elterliche Verhalten selbst beeinflusst. Eltern im reifen Erwachsenenalter werden in ihrer Einstellung durch eine sich entwickelnde Generativität beeinflusst, sodass das Eltern-Kind-Verhältnis komplexer wird. In diesem Verhältnis können sich zudem Ambivalenzen einstellen, zumal wenn Kinder einen bestimmten vorgesehenen normativen Status nicht erreichen (Schulabschluss, finanzielle Selbstständigkeit, Heirat u.a.). Im Alter, das eine späte Identitätskrise bringt, mit der man sich auseinandersetzen muss, um nicht der Verzweiflung anheimzufallen, verbindet sich Elternschaft mit einer Evaluierung ihrer selbst in der zurückliegenden Zeit. Je nachdem, wie man die eigene Rolle als Mutter oder Vater bewertet, und je nach der Qualität des aktuellen Eltern-Kind- Verhältnisses gestaltet sich auch die eigene Einstellung zu den nun erwachsenen Kindern und die Zufriedenheit mit sich selbst in der Rolle als Mutter oder Vater

KORRELATE ZUR EINGEWOHNUNGVON STUDENTEN IM ERSTEN STUDIENJAHR

Na uzorku studenata Filozofskog fakulteta u Zadru izvršena su dva ispitivanja: na početku studija i nakon godinu dana studiranja. Cilj istraživanja bio je provjeriti jesu li stilovi suočavanja mjereni upitnikom CISS Endlera i Parkera stabilne dispozicije te kakva je njihova povezanost s indikatorima pozitivne i negativne prilagodbe studiju kao i s ranije identificiranim osobnim i okolinskim prediktorima prilagodbe. Rezultati su potvrdili stabilnost triju stilova suočavanja: suočavanja usmjerenog na problem, suočavanja usmjerenog na emocije i suočavanja izbjegavanjem. Pri tome je najstabilnije suočavanje usmjereno na emocije. Pokazalo se da niti jedan stil suočavanja nije povezan s indikatorom pozitivne prilagodbe studiju, tj. sa zadovoljstvom uspjehom na prvoj godini. Indikator negativne prilagodbe, tj. procjena stresnosti prve godine, povezan je negativno sa suočavanjem usmjerenim na problem i pozitivno sa suočavanjem usmjerenim na emocije. Samopoštovanje je povezano i s pozitivnom i s negativnom prilagodbom studiju kao i sa stilovima suočavanja usmjerenih na problem i na emocije. Narav te povezanosti ukazuje na moderatorsku ulogu samopoštovanja.Two investigations were carried out on a sample of students attending the Faculty of Philosophy in Zadar: one at the beginning of the study period and the other after the freshman year. The purpose of the investigation was to establish whether the styles of coping measured by Encler\u27s and Parker\u27s CISS questionnaire are stable dispositions and to see how they connect with indicators of positive and negative adjustment to being a student and with pri orly identified individual and environmental predictors of adjustment. Results confirm the stability of three styles of coping: problem-focused coping strategies, emotion-focused and avoidance coping strategies. Amongst these the most stable strategy is the emotion-focused one. It was shown that none of the styles of coping was connected with the indicator of positive adjustment to study, that is, with satisfaction regarding educational success during the freshman year. The indicator of negative adjustment, that is, the evaluation of stress during the freshman year is negatively connected with problem-focused coping strategies and positively with emotion-focused strategies. Self-esteem is connected both with positive and negative adjustment to being a student and with the styles of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies. The nature of this connection indicates the moderating role played by self-esteem.lneiner Gruppe von Studente n des ersten Studienjahrs der Philosophisehen Fakultet in Zadar wurden zu Beginn und nach Abschlufš der Vorlesungen zwei Untersuchungen durchgefOhrt. Das Ziel war, die Anpassung der Studenten an die fOr sie neuen Studienverhaltnisse zu prOfen, d.h.: 1) haben die anhand des CISSFragebogens nach Endler und Parker ermittelten Arten der Konfrontierung eine stabile Disposition?, 2) auf welche Weise sind diese Konfrontierungsarten mit den Indikatoren fOr die positive bzw. negative Anpassung an das Studium verbunden? und 3) in welchem Zusammen hang stehen diese Konfrontierungsweisen mit denzuvor ermittelten personlichen und umgebungsbedingten Pradiktoren der Ahpassung? Die Ergebnisse bestatigten die Stabilitat dreier Konfrontierungsweisen: Konfrontierung durch Ausrichtung auf das Problem, Konfrontierung durch gefOhlsmaBige Reaktion und Konfrontierung durch Ausweichen. Die groBte Stabilitat erwies sich im Falle der Konfrontierung durch gefOhlsmaBige Reaktionen. Die Untersuchung ergab, daB keine der Konfrontierungsweisen mit dem Indikator fOr positive Anpassung an das Studium, d.h. mit Zufriedenheit durch Lernerfolg im ersten Studienjahr verbunden ist. Der Indikator fOr negative Anpassung,d.h. das Erlebnis des ersten Studienjahres als Stre B, ist auf negative Weise mit der Konfrontierung durch Ausrichtung auf das Problem, auf positive Weise wiederum mit der Konfrontierung durch gefOhlsmaBige Reaktionen verbunden. Der Faktor der Selbstachtung steht in Zusammen hang mit der positiven bzw. negativen Anpassung an das Studium sowie mit den Konfrontierungsweisen der Konzentrierung auf das Problem und des gefOhlsmaBigen Reagierens. Dieser Umstand verweist auf die wichtige Rolle, die der SeibStachtung zukommt

KORRELATE ZUR EINGEWOHNUNGVON STUDENTEN IM ERSTEN STUDIENJAHR

Na uzorku studenata Filozofskog fakulteta u Zadru izvršena su dva ispitivanja: na početku studija i nakon godinu dana studiranja. Cilj istraživanja bio je provjeriti jesu li stilovi suočavanja mjereni upitnikom CISS Endlera i Parkera stabilne dispozicije te kakva je njihova povezanost s indikatorima pozitivne i negativne prilagodbe studiju kao i s ranije identificiranim osobnim i okolinskim prediktorima prilagodbe. Rezultati su potvrdili stabilnost triju stilova suočavanja: suočavanja usmjerenog na problem, suočavanja usmjerenog na emocije i suočavanja izbjegavanjem. Pri tome je najstabilnije suočavanje usmjereno na emocije. Pokazalo se da niti jedan stil suočavanja nije povezan s indikatorom pozitivne prilagodbe studiju, tj. sa zadovoljstvom uspjehom na prvoj godini. Indikator negativne prilagodbe, tj. procjena stresnosti prve godine, povezan je negativno sa suočavanjem usmjerenim na problem i pozitivno sa suočavanjem usmjerenim na emocije. Samopoštovanje je povezano i s pozitivnom i s negativnom prilagodbom studiju kao i sa stilovima suočavanja usmjerenih na problem i na emocije. Narav te povezanosti ukazuje na moderatorsku ulogu samopoštovanja.Two investigations were carried out on a sample of students attending the Faculty of Philosophy in Zadar: one at the beginning of the study period and the other after the freshman year. The purpose of the investigation was to establish whether the styles of coping measured by Encler\u27s and Parker\u27s CISS questionnaire are stable dispositions and to see how they connect with indicators of positive and negative adjustment to being a student and with pri orly identified individual and environmental predictors of adjustment. Results confirm the stability of three styles of coping: problem-focused coping strategies, emotion-focused and avoidance coping strategies. Amongst these the most stable strategy is the emotion-focused one. It was shown that none of the styles of coping was connected with the indicator of positive adjustment to study, that is, with satisfaction regarding educational success during the freshman year. The indicator of negative adjustment, that is, the evaluation of stress during the freshman year is negatively connected with problem-focused coping strategies and positively with emotion-focused strategies. Self-esteem is connected both with positive and negative adjustment to being a student and with the styles of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies. The nature of this connection indicates the moderating role played by self-esteem.lneiner Gruppe von Studente n des ersten Studienjahrs der Philosophisehen Fakultet in Zadar wurden zu Beginn und nach Abschlufš der Vorlesungen zwei Untersuchungen durchgefOhrt. Das Ziel war, die Anpassung der Studenten an die fOr sie neuen Studienverhaltnisse zu prOfen, d.h.: 1) haben die anhand des CISSFragebogens nach Endler und Parker ermittelten Arten der Konfrontierung eine stabile Disposition?, 2) auf welche Weise sind diese Konfrontierungsarten mit den Indikatoren fOr die positive bzw. negative Anpassung an das Studium verbunden? und 3) in welchem Zusammen hang stehen diese Konfrontierungsweisen mit denzuvor ermittelten personlichen und umgebungsbedingten Pradiktoren der Ahpassung? Die Ergebnisse bestatigten die Stabilitat dreier Konfrontierungsweisen: Konfrontierung durch Ausrichtung auf das Problem, Konfrontierung durch gefOhlsmaBige Reaktion und Konfrontierung durch Ausweichen. Die groBte Stabilitat erwies sich im Falle der Konfrontierung durch gefOhlsmaBige Reaktionen. Die Untersuchung ergab, daB keine der Konfrontierungsweisen mit dem Indikator fOr positive Anpassung an das Studium, d.h. mit Zufriedenheit durch Lernerfolg im ersten Studienjahr verbunden ist. Der Indikator fOr negative Anpassung,d.h. das Erlebnis des ersten Studienjahres als Stre B, ist auf negative Weise mit der Konfrontierung durch Ausrichtung auf das Problem, auf positive Weise wiederum mit der Konfrontierung durch gefOhlsmaBige Reaktionen verbunden. Der Faktor der Selbstachtung steht in Zusammen hang mit der positiven bzw. negativen Anpassung an das Studium sowie mit den Konfrontierungsweisen der Konzentrierung auf das Problem und des gefOhlsmaBigen Reagierens. Dieser Umstand verweist auf die wichtige Rolle, die der SeibStachtung zukommt

Process of retirement: an attempt at checking Atchley\u27s model of adjustment

Umirovljenje predstavlja normativan životni dogadaj koji zahtijeva prilagodbu osobe pa je opravdano promatrati ga kao proces koji traje odredeno vrijeme. Trajanje i složenost toga procesa ovise o subjektivnim i objektivnim okolnostima zbog kojih umirovljenje može biti redovito ili prijevremeno, prisilno ili dobrovoljno. Na osnovi americkih istraživanja Atchley smatra da se proces umirovljenja može promatrati kao niz prilagodbi predstavljenih u sedam faza: faza kad je umirovljenje još daleko, faza predumirovljenja, faza medenog mjeseca, faza razocaranja, faza reorijentacije, faza stabilnosti i terminalna faza. Te faze nisu slijed dogadaja koje svi prolaze, niti su nužno povezane s nekom kronološkom dobi ili dužinom vremena, kao što je to slucaj s razvojnim fazama tijekom života. Iako su Atchleyeve faze u literaturi široko prihvacene, malo je empirijskih podataka o njihovoj valjanosti, i to samo onih dobivenih na uzorcima americkih umirovljenika. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je pokušati konstruirati instrument za mjerenje Atchleyevih faza prilagodbe na umirovljenje i provjeriti njegov model na uzorku hrvatskih ispitanika. U ispitivanju je sudjelovalo 196 umirovljenih osoba s podrucja Hrvatske i BiH. U ispitivanju je korišten upitnik koji je sadržavao dio koji se odnosio na opce podatke te listu tvrdnji o procesu umirovljenja Rezultati našeg istraživanja govore u prilog postojanja pet faza iz Atchleyeva modela (faza pripreme, faza medenog mjeseca, faza razocaranja, faza stabilnosti i terminalna faza), ali se deskriptori tih faza ponešto razlikuju od Atchleyeva opisa. Identificirana je još jedna faza koja se u literaturi ne spominje. Nazvali smo je fazom radne reaktivacije (s ciljem pribavljanja sredstava za život, ali bez zasnivanja radnog odnosa).Retirement is a normative life event which requires a person’s adjustment. According to this, retirement should be treated as a process which lasts a certain period of time. The process duration and complexity depend on subjective and objective circumstances in which retirement could be in time or earlier, voluntary or compulsory. According to some American research, Atchley thinks that the retirement process should be treated as a series of adjustments represented through seven phases: the phase when retirement is far away, preretirement phase, honeymoon phase, disappointment phase, reorientation phase, stability phase and terminal phase. These phases are not a sequence of events that everyone goes through, nor are they connected with some chronological age or time of phase, as is the case with lifespan developmental phases. Although Atchley’s phases are accepted in literature there is a small number of empirical data for data validity. Almost all data are collected on the sample of American subjects. The aim of this research was to construct the measurement questionnaire for Atchley’s adjustment to retirement phases, and to check how appropriate his model was for the sample of Croatian subjects. The subjects were 196 retired people in Croatia and Bosnia. The questionnaire consisted partly of the sociodemographic variable measurement, and the list of items related to the retirement process. The results of our research indicated that there were five phases from Atchley’s model (preparation phase, honeymoon phase, disappointment phase, stability phase and terminal phase). But the descriptors of those phases were somewhat different from Atchley’s descriptors. An additional phase, not mentioned in literature, was identified. We called it the working reactivation phase (with the aim of finding funds for life, but without being employed again)

Loneliness among adult women: The role of perception of marriage quality and self-silencing

Empirijska istraživanja u različitim kulturama konzistentno su utvrdila da su osobe u braku kao i one u izvanbračnoj zajednici manje usamljene od samaca, razvedenih i udovaca (de Jong Gierveld, 1987; Joness, Hebb, 2003). Budući da Weiss u svom interakcionističkom modelu usamljenosti naglašava da emocionalna i socijalna usamljenost nastaju kad socijalne interakcije ne osiguravaju osobi socijalne zalihe kao što su privrženost, socijalna integracija, potvrda vlastite vrijednosti i druge, razumno je pretpostaviti da razina, pa i tip usamljenosti, ne ovise samo o bračnom statusu nego i o kvaliteti bračnog odnosa koji omogućuje ili ne omogućuje postizanje navedenih zaliha. Empirijska evidencija u prilog ovoj pretpostavci prikupljena je uglavnom u kliničkom radu s depresivnim osobama, pretežito ženskog spola. U takvom je radu D. Jack (1991) identificirala konstrukt samostišavanje koji označava kognitivne sheme kreiranja i održavanja bliskog odnosa na način da žena bude pasivna, da zatomljuje svoje osjećaje i misli. Pretpostavili smo da bi samostišavanje moglo imati značajnu ulogu u relaciji kvalitete bračnog odnosa i usamljenosti udanih žena. Kod 185 udanih žena provedeno je istraživanje s ciljem utvrđivanja prirode povezanosti dimenzija kvalitete bračnog odnosa (seksualna intimnost, konflikti, prisnost, komunikacija i pravednost te zadovoljstvo bračnim odnosom) s emocionalnom i socijalnom usamljenosti, te uloga samostišavanja u povezanosti pojedinih dimenzija bračnog odnosa i usamljenosti. U ispitivanju su rabljeni provjereni instrumenti solidne pouzdanosti, i to: Upitnik percepcije bračnog odnosa (UPKBO), Skala samostišavanja i Skala socijalne i emocionalne usamljenosti. Rezultati regresijskih analiza upućuju na postojanje umjerene značajne povezanosti između dimenzija bračnog odnosa i emocionalne i socijalne usamljenosti te samostišavanja. Značajni prediktori emocionalne usamljenosti u ljubavi su zadovoljstvo bračnim odnosom i prisnost, a usamljenosti u obitelji prisnost i intimni seksualni odnosi, dok socijalnu usamljenost najbolje predviđaju intimni seksualni odnosi i konflikti. Navedeni prediktori objašnjavaju značajno veći postotak varijance emocionalne nego socijalne usamljenosti. Samostišavanje se pokazalo parcijalnim medijatorom između dimenzija kvalitete bračnog odnosa i usamljenosti.Empirical studies in different cultures consistently confirm that married persons as well as those in cohabitation are less lonely than single, divorced and widowed persons (de Jong Gierveld, 1987; Joness, Hebb, 2003). Since Weiss in his interactionistic model of loneliness has emphasized that emotional and social loneliness emerge when attachment, social integration, reassurance of worth and others provisions are not met. So it is wise to assume that level and type of loneliness do not depend only on marriage status, but on quality of marriage which could enable (or not) achievement of the above mentioned provisions. Most empirical data confirming these assumptions were collected mainly in clinical studies of depressed persons, mostly female participants. In these studies D. Jack (1991) identified a new construct, named self-silencing, which refers to cognitive schemes that create and maintain close relationships in a way that women should remain passive and repress their feelings and thoughts. Therefore, it was hypothesized that self-silencing could have significant role in relation of marriage quality and loneliness among married women. This study was carried out on 185 married female participants. The main aim was to define the nature of relations of marriage quality dimensions (sexual intimacy, conflict, attachment, communication, perception of justice and satisfaction with marriage) with social and emotional loneliness. Furthermore, the second aim of this study was to examine the role of self-silencing in relation to certain dimensions of marriage quality and loneliness. In this study, valid and reliable measures were used for the assessment of loneliness, perception of marriage quality and self-silencing. Those measures were: Perception Of Marriage Quality Questionnaire, Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale and Self-Silencing Scale. Results of regression analysis show the existence of moderate relations between dimensions of marriage quality, emotional and social loneliness and self-silencing. Significant predictors for romantic (emotional) loneliness are satisfaction with marriage and attachment, for family (emotional) loneliness are attachment and sexual intimacy, while for social loneliness significant predictors are sexual intimacy and conflict. The above mentioned predictors significantly explain more variance for emotional loneliness as a criterion variable than for social loneliness. Results also indicate that self-silencing is a partial mediator in relations of dimensions of marriage quality and loneliness

Selbstoffenbarung gegenüber verschiedenen Personen und diesbezügliche alters- und geschlechtsbedingte Unterschiede zwischen Adoleszenten

Provedeno je ispitivanje u 139 srednjoškolaca i 287 studenata s ciljem utvrđivanja faktorske strukture Jourardova upitnika samootkrivanja (SDQ), posebno za samootkrivanje majci, ocu, najboljem prijatelju, najboljoj prijateljici, partneru i strancu. Željelo se provjeriti postoje li dobne i spolne razlike u tome samootkrivanju te kakav je odnos između samootkrivanja i sramežljivosti. Utvrđena je jednofaktorska struktura samootkrivanja majci i najboljoj prijateljici, što znači da se tim osobama adolescenti podjednako otkrivaju u više i u manje intimnim područjima. U samootkrivanju ocu, najboljem prijatelju, partneru i strancu utvrđena je dvofaktorska struktura: jedan faktor se odnosi na intimnija, a drugi na manje intimna područja. Adolescenti se ovim osobama manje otkrivaju u intimnijim područjima. Pokazalo se da se sramežljiviji manje otkrivaju ocu i najboljem prijatelju, a samootkrivanje majci i najboljoj prijateljici nije povezano sa sramežljivošću. Djevojke se više otkrivaju majci, najboljoj prijateljici i partneru od mladića, što je sukladno s nalazima o većem samootkrivanju odraslih žena u usporedbi s odraslim muškarcima. Srednjoškolci se općenito manje otkrivaju partneru u intimnijim područjima, nego studenti. Muški se srednjoškolci manje otkrivaju ocu, majci i najboljoj prijateljici od studenata muškog spola.An investigation was carried out on 139 high school students and 287 university students. The aim of this study was to examine the factor structure of Jourard\u27s self-disclosure questionnaire (SDQ), separately for self-disclosure to six different persons (mother, father, the best male friend, the best female friend, partner and stranger). The other aims were to examine the age and gender differences in self-disclosure as well as relationships among self-disclosure and shyness. For the self-disclosure to mother and the best female friend one interpretable factor was excluded. That means that adolescents disclose themselves to these persons similarly in more intimate and less intimate spheres. For the self-disclosure to father, the best male friend, stranger and partner two factors were extracted. One factor is related to more intimate, and the other to less intimate spheres of life. Adolescents disclose themselves to these persons in more intimate spheres less than to mother and the best female friend. Shyer adolescents disclose themselves less to father and the best male friend, while there is no significant correlation among shyness and self-disclosure to mother and the best female friend. Girls disclose themselves to mother, the best female friend and partner more than young men do. This is related with the findings that adult women disclose themselves more than adult men do. High school students in intimate spheres, generally speaking, disclose themselves less to partner in comparison with university students. Similarly to that, male high school students disclose themselves less to father, mother and the best female friend in comparison with university students.Die vorliegende Arbeit präsentiert die Ergebnisse einer Untersuchung, die unter 139 Mittelschülern* und 287 Studenten in Kroatien durchgeführt wurde, um die Faktorenstruktur des Jourard\u27schen Fragebogens zur Selbstoffenbarung (SDQ) zu ermitteln. Im Vordergrund des Interesses stand die Selbstoffenbarung von Adoleszenten gegenüber der Mutter, dem Vater, dem besten Freund, der besten Freundin, dem Partner sowie gegenüber Unbekannten. Man wollte feststellen, ob es diesbezüglich alters- und geschlechtsbedingte Unterschiede gebe. Außerdem sollte das Verhältnis zwischen Selbstoffenbarung und Schüchternheit ermittelt werden. Es erwies sich, dass die Selbstoffenbarung gegenüber der Mutter und der besten Freundin eine Ein-Faktoren-Struktur hat: Heranwachsende junge Menschen vertrauen sich diesen beiden Personengruppen gleichermaßen an, um mehr oder weniger intime Probleme zu besprechen. In der Selbstoffenbarung gegenüber dem Vater, dem besten Freund, dem Partner sowie gegenüber einer unbekannten Person konnte eine Zwei-Faktoren-Struktur offen gelegt werden: Einen Faktor stellen intime Persönlichkeitsbereiche dar, den zweiten Faktor weniger intime Themen. D.h., Adoleszenten vertrauen sich diesen Personengruppen bei intimeren Problemen weniger an. Die Schüchternen unter den Befragten sagten aus, dass sie sich dem Vater und dem besten Freund weniger offenbarten; hingegen ergab sich kein Zusammenhang zwischen Schüchternheit und der Selbstoffenbarung gegenüber der Mutter und der besten Freundin. Mädchen vertrauen sich ihren Müttern, ihrer besten Freundin und dem Partner eher an, als dies bei Knaben und jungen Männern der Fall ist. Dieses Verhältnis stimmt überein mit Werten, die über das entsprechende Verhalten von erwachsenen Frauen und Männern ermittelt wurden. Allgemein gilt, dass Mittelschüler und Gymnasiasten sich bei Problemen intimerer Natur ihren Partnern in weit geringerem Maße anvertrauen als Studenten. Mittelschüler und Gymnasiasten männlichen Geschlechts vertrauen sich zudem ihren Vätern und Müttern sowie ihrer besten Freundin weniger an, als dies bei männlichen Studenten der Fall ist. * Das Kroatische Schulsystem sieht nach der abgeschlossenen Grundschule (1.– 8. Klasse) den Besuch einer sog. Mittelschule oder eines Gymnasiums vor (1.– 4. ”Mittelschul-” bzw. ”Gymnasialklasse”)

Einsamkeit und Alleinsein unter Studenten: die Rolle affiliativer Motivierung und bestimmter Persönlichkeitsmerkmale

Istraživanje je imalo nekoliko ciljeva.1 Glavni cilj bio je utvrditi konceptualnu distinktivnost usamljenosti i samoće, njihov međusobni odnos te njihovu povezanost s varijablama rasta iz Maslowljeva hijerarhijskog modela motivacije. Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku od 124 studenta i 176 studentica splitskog sveučilišta. U ispitivanju su rabljene sljedeće skale: kratka forma UCLA, skala preferirane samoće, samopoštovanja, kratki indeks samoaktualizacije, Hillove skale afilijativne motivacije, skala sramežljivosti i skala “master orientation” (Nurmi i sur., 1996.). Rezultati su potvrdili konceptualnu odvojenost usamljenosti i samoće, ali i njihovu umjerenu pozitivnu povezanost, što indicira da se željena samoća rabi za suočavanje s usamljenošću, a ne samo za kreativne aktivnosti kao što se pretpostavilo na osnovi koncepta samoaktualizacije. Najboljim prediktorima usamljenosti pokazale su se varijable Maslowljeva modela (negativna povezanost s afilijativnom motivacijom, samopoštovanjem i samoaktualizacijom), ali i sa spolom (u smislu da su mladići usamljeniji). Navedene varijable objasnile su značajno manji postotak varijance samoće što upućuje na potrebu daljnjih istraživanja samoće kao važnog dijela adolescentskog iskustva.The aim of this study was to examine the conceptual distinction between loneliness and solitude, their interrelationship, and their relations with growth variables of the Maslow hierarchical model. 124 male and 176 female students of the University of Split participated in the study. The instruments used in this study were: short form of UCLA loneliness scale (Allen & Oshagan, 1995), preference for solitude scale, Rosenberg self-esteem scale, short index of self-actualization, Hills affiliative motivation scales, shyness scale and mastery orientation scale (Nurmi et al, 1996). The results confirm the conceptual distinction between loneliness and solitude, and their moderate positive correlation. Although, according to the conceptualization of self actualization, solitude could be used for creative activities, this correlation indicates that solitude could be used as well as a coping mechanism when people are lonely. The best predictors of loneliness are variables from Maslow’s model (negative correlations with affiliative motivation, self-esteem and self-actualization) as well as gender (young men are more lonely in comparison with young women). The variables used explain significantly less variance of solitude, indicating that further research related to solitude, will probably shed more light on that part of the adolescents’ experience.Die vorliegende Untersuchung hatte mehrere Ziele. Das Hauptziel war, die konzeptuelle Disktinktion zwischen Einsamkeit und Alleinsein, das Verhältnis zwischen diesen Phänomenen sowie ihren Zusammenhang mit den Wachstumsvariablen des Maslowschen hierarchischen Motivationsmodells herauszuarbeiten. Die Untersuchung wurde unter 124 Studenten und 176 Studentinnen der Universität Split durchgeführt. Dabei wurden folgende Skalen angewandt: eine Kurzversion der UCLA-Skala, Skalen zur Bestimmung des Selbstwertgefühls und des selbstgewählten Alleinseins, ein kurzer Index der Selbstverwirklichung, die Hillsche Skala affiliativer Motivierung, eine Skala zur Ermittlung von Schüchternheit sowie die "Master orientation"- Skala (Nurmi et al., 1996). Die Untersuchungsergebnisse bestätigten die konzeptuelle Trennung von Einsamkeit und Alleinsein, ebenso aber auch die Tatsache des gemäßigten positiven Bezugs dieser Phänomene zueinander. Das bedeutet, daß selbstgewähltes Alleinsein zur Konfrontierung mit Einsamkeit genutzt wird, also nicht nur für kreative Aktivitäten, wie dies aufgrund der Selbstverwirklichungs- Konzeption angenommen wurde. Als die besten Prädiktoren von Einsamkeit erwiesen sich die Variablen des Maslowschen Modells (negativer Bezug zu affiliativer Motivierung, Selbstwertgefühl und Selbstverwirklichung). Ein weiterer Prädiktor ist die Geschlechtszugehörigkeit (d. h., unter männlichen Testpersonen war die Vereinsamung ausgeprägter). Die angeführten Variablen erklärten den wesentlich niedrigeren Prozentsatz der Varianz des Alleinseins, was auf das Bedürfnis verweist, das Phänomen des Alleinseins als wichtigen Bestandteil der Adoleszenz weiter zu untersuchen

Loneliness among adult women: The role of perception of marriage quality and self-silencing

Empirijska istraživanja u različitim kulturama konzistentno su utvrdila da su osobe u braku kao i one u izvanbračnoj zajednici manje usamljene od samaca, razvedenih i udovaca (de Jong Gierveld, 1987; Joness, Hebb, 2003). Budući da Weiss u svom interakcionističkom modelu usamljenosti naglašava da emocionalna i socijalna usamljenost nastaju kad socijalne interakcije ne osiguravaju osobi socijalne zalihe kao što su privrženost, socijalna integracija, potvrda vlastite vrijednosti i druge, razumno je pretpostaviti da razina, pa i tip usamljenosti, ne ovise samo o bračnom statusu nego i o kvaliteti bračnog odnosa koji omogućuje ili ne omogućuje postizanje navedenih zaliha. Empirijska evidencija u prilog ovoj pretpostavci prikupljena je uglavnom u kliničkom radu s depresivnim osobama, pretežito ženskog spola. U takvom je radu D. Jack (1991) identificirala konstrukt samostišavanje koji označava kognitivne sheme kreiranja i održavanja bliskog odnosa na način da žena bude pasivna, da zatomljuje svoje osjećaje i misli. Pretpostavili smo da bi samostišavanje moglo imati značajnu ulogu u relaciji kvalitete bračnog odnosa i usamljenosti udanih žena. Kod 185 udanih žena provedeno je istraživanje s ciljem utvrđivanja prirode povezanosti dimenzija kvalitete bračnog odnosa (seksualna intimnost, konflikti, prisnost, komunikacija i pravednost te zadovoljstvo bračnim odnosom) s emocionalnom i socijalnom usamljenosti, te uloga samostišavanja u povezanosti pojedinih dimenzija bračnog odnosa i usamljenosti. U ispitivanju su rabljeni provjereni instrumenti solidne pouzdanosti, i to: Upitnik percepcije bračnog odnosa (UPKBO), Skala samostišavanja i Skala socijalne i emocionalne usamljenosti. Rezultati regresijskih analiza upućuju na postojanje umjerene značajne povezanosti između dimenzija bračnog odnosa i emocionalne i socijalne usamljenosti te samostišavanja. Značajni prediktori emocionalne usamljenosti u ljubavi su zadovoljstvo bračnim odnosom i prisnost, a usamljenosti u obitelji prisnost i intimni seksualni odnosi, dok socijalnu usamljenost najbolje predviđaju intimni seksualni odnosi i konflikti. Navedeni prediktori objašnjavaju značajno veći postotak varijance emocionalne nego socijalne usamljenosti. Samostišavanje se pokazalo parcijalnim medijatorom između dimenzija kvalitete bračnog odnosa i usamljenosti.Empirical studies in different cultures consistently confirm that married persons as well as those in cohabitation are less lonely than single, divorced and widowed persons (de Jong Gierveld, 1987; Joness, Hebb, 2003). Since Weiss in his interactionistic model of loneliness has emphasized that emotional and social loneliness emerge when attachment, social integration, reassurance of worth and others provisions are not met. So it is wise to assume that level and type of loneliness do not depend only on marriage status, but on quality of marriage which could enable (or not) achievement of the above mentioned provisions. Most empirical data confirming these assumptions were collected mainly in clinical studies of depressed persons, mostly female participants. In these studies D. Jack (1991) identified a new construct, named self-silencing, which refers to cognitive schemes that create and maintain close relationships in a way that women should remain passive and repress their feelings and thoughts. Therefore, it was hypothesized that self-silencing could have significant role in relation of marriage quality and loneliness among married women. This study was carried out on 185 married female participants. The main aim was to define the nature of relations of marriage quality dimensions (sexual intimacy, conflict, attachment, communication, perception of justice and satisfaction with marriage) with social and emotional loneliness. Furthermore, the second aim of this study was to examine the role of self-silencing in relation to certain dimensions of marriage quality and loneliness. In this study, valid and reliable measures were used for the assessment of loneliness, perception of marriage quality and self-silencing. Those measures were: Perception Of Marriage Quality Questionnaire, Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale and Self-Silencing Scale. Results of regression analysis show the existence of moderate relations between dimensions of marriage quality, emotional and social loneliness and self-silencing. Significant predictors for romantic (emotional) loneliness are satisfaction with marriage and attachment, for family (emotional) loneliness are attachment and sexual intimacy, while for social loneliness significant predictors are sexual intimacy and conflict. The above mentioned predictors significantly explain more variance for emotional loneliness as a criterion variable than for social loneliness. Results also indicate that self-silencing is a partial mediator in relations of dimensions of marriage quality and loneliness