26 research outputs found

    Longer Leukocyte Telomere Length Is Associated with Smaller Hippocampal Volume among Non-Demented APOE Δ3/Δ3 Subjects

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    Telomere length shortens with cellular division, and leukocyte telomere length is used as a marker for systemic telomere length. The hippocampus hosts adult neurogenesis and is an important structure for episodic memory, and carriers of the apolipoprotein E Δ4 allele exhibit higher hippocampal atrophy rates and differing telomere dynamics compared with non-carriers. The authors investigated whether leukocyte telomere length was associated with hippocampal volume in 57 cognitively intact subjects (29 Δ3/Δ3 carriers; 28 Δ4 carriers) aged 49–79 yr. Leukocyte telomere length correlated inversely with left (rs = −0.465; p = 0.011), right (rs = −0.414; p = 0.025), and total hippocampus volume (rs = −0.519; p = 0.004) among APOE Δ3/Δ3 carriers, but not among Δ4 carriers. However, the Δ4 carriers fit with the general correlation pattern exhibited by the Δ3/Δ3 carriers, as Δ4 carriers on average had longer telomeres and smaller hippocampi compared with Δ3/Δ3 carriers. The relationship observed can be interpreted as long telomeres representing a history of relatively low cellular proliferation, reflected in smaller hippocampal volumes. The results support the potential of leukocyte telomere length being used as a biomarker for tapping functional and structural processes of the aging brain

    The Individual Blood Cell Telomere Attrition Rate Is Telomere Length Dependent

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    Age-associated telomere shortening is a well documented feature of peripheral blood cells in human population studies, but it is not known to what extent these data can be transferred to the individual level. Telomere length (TL) in two blood samples taken at ∌10 years interval from 959 individuals was investigated using real-time PCR. TL was also measured in 13 families from a multigenerational cohort. As expected, we found an age-related decline in TL over time (r = –0.164, P<0.001, n = 959). However, approximately one-third of the individuals exhibited a stable or increased TL over a decade. The individual telomere attrition rate was inversely correlated with initial TL at a highly significant level (r = –0.752, P<0.001), indicating that the attrition rate was most pronounced in individuals with long telomeres at baseline. In accordance, the age-associated telomere attrition rate was more prominent in families with members displaying longer telomeres at a young age (r = –0.691, P<0.001). Abnormal blood TL has been reported at diagnosis of various malignancies, but in the present study there was no association between individual telomere attrition rate or prediagnostic TL and later tumor development. The collected data strongly suggest a TL maintenance mechanism acting in vivo, providing protection of short telomeres as previously demonstrated in vitro. Our findings might challenge the hypothesis that individual TL can predict possible life span or later tumor development

    Den Normativa Moraliska Kods Workshoppen : - Ett nytt tankeexperiment Àmnat för att undersöka normativ moral

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    The normative moral code is considered to be such that it applies universally to all or at least to all who can understand and govern their behavior by it. All or almost all common folk think of and use their own moral codes as them being normative in that for example there simply seem to them to exist “oughts” that apply to all and that there simply, straightforwardly are “things” that are right and wrong, good and bad. Gert Bernard and Gert Joshua have written an article on the topic of defining morality, with the title of “The Definition of Morality”. The authors suggest that the terms ‘normative morality’ refer to a code of conduct that, given some specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational persons. The authors take this formulation as entailing true and important definitional features of what normative morality is, although the authors think of this basic definition, conception as not being complete and that some additional feature hence is lacking but that any such candidate addendum to the definitional basic schema that they surveyed within the article seemed to be controversial, contested. Normative morality seems apt to investigate by creating thought-experiments wherein the participants are for example, envisioned choosing to endorse, put forward or act in accordance with a moral code. Within this large investigative project into normative morality with the help of thought-experiments it seemed to me that there was an under-representation of thought-experiments exhibiting some worthwhile and relevant features and I felt that it was a warranted project to create a thought-experiment which concurrently exhibited these features. Such an experiment could be thought of as an unusual “puzzle-piece” which could be valuable in contributing to furthering the completion of the “puzzle”, i.e. what normative morality is and its moral code. These three features were: i) a high degree of aptness for investigating a major part of or the complete normative moral code and ii) a high degree of freedom pertaining to the participants, e.g. their actions, thoughts etc., as well as iii) a high degree of confidence or warrant concerning what the participants would do, think, feel etc. within the thought-experiment. A thought-experiment, the Normative Moral Codes Workshop (NMCW) was hence created, which was aimed at investigating normative morality and its code and which exhibited these features. It is a thought-experiment mimicking an actual empirical study wherein the participants are given the task to together put forward the moral code for them, that would apply to them and that would cover a major or complete part of what they consider their moral codes to entail. The participants employed within my run of the NMCW thought-experiment were all currently living adult persons who I knew well. The core or main aim of this essay was to investigate whether it would or would not be the case that most or all participants within my run of the thought-experiment the NMCW would decide to put forward the code together with the chosen formulation of the thesis being, that it would not be the case that most or all participants would put forward the code within my run of the NMCW thought-experiment. Part of the core aim was also to elucidate why the thesis was supported or not supported as well as how strong the support was for the outcome of the experiment, i.e. the outcome of a code being put forward or not. The essay also has some minor aims which radiate out from the core aim (see below). As the thought-experimenter, I then reported on the events that I envisioned as happening within my run the NMCW thought-experiment as my selected participants grappled with the task and their decision to put or not put forward the code together that would apply to them. The finding was that the thesis was supported and that the support was robust in that I could identify several reasons the participants had against putting forward the code and I found very little in terms of reasons among the participants for putting forward the code. The essay also had some minor aims to selectively discuss a few further relevant and interesting issues radiating out from the core aim. These minor aims revolved around discussing some selected salient features of the NMCW including how they could relate to the outcome. One such selected salient feature was the feature of the employed participant sample of my run of the NMCW. I for example, discussed the potential extension of it not being the case that most or all participants would decide to put forward the code, if the participant sample would have been modified but still employed currently living5adults and I ended up being of the opinion that pertaining to most potential samples a similar outcome as the one envisioned within my run of the NMCW would be expected. I also wanted to discuss some further selected salient features of the NMCW within the context of addressing whether the NMCW, given its features ought to be considered an unsound, inapt experiment for investigating normative morality, given Gert’s and Gert’s conception of normative morality, since if this was the case the outcome of the experiment ought to be disregarded, given no weight. Although, I did find potential targets for criticism of the NMCW experimental design I did not find any reasons strong enough to disqualify the NMCW experiment as an experiment inapt, unsound for investigating normative morality, given the features of normative morality entailed within the suggested basic definition provided by Gert and Gert. Finally, I also aimed to selectively discuss some aspects of what it could mean pertaining to the conception of normative morality, according to Gert and Gert, that the thesis was supported. For example, given one interpretation the outcome could be taken to provide support for the non-existence of a normative moral code, but given another be taken to mean that addenda has to be identified and added to the basic conception of normative morality and that such addenda would be such that they would disqualify the NMCW (and its outcome) as a sound and apt thought-experiment to be employed in investigating normative morality. I also attempted to briefly illustrate how the NMCW thought-experiment could be used as a substratum facilitating the identification and clarification of such potential addenda to the basic conception of normative morality, suggested by Gert and Gert, and I also suggest some potential candidate features of the NMCW that further potential specifications added to the basic conception of morality ought to be able to disqualify, exclude as acceptable features of experiments aimed at investigating normative morality. In this way, an unusual, under-represented kind of thought-experiment, “puzzle-piece” when it comes to the large investigative project of employing experiments in order to acquire further insight into normative morality, i.e. “the puzzle”, can regardless of whether it seems to fit or does not seem to fit the “puzzle”, still be employed in such a way as to potentially provide further insight into “the puzzle”. This since even when a “puzzle-piece” does not seem to fit the “puzzle”, “seeing” and understanding how and why could provide us with information about the “puzzle”.Den normativa moraliska koden anses vara sĂ„dan att den gĂ€ller universellt för alla eller Ă„tminstone för alla som kan förstĂ„ den och reglera sitt beteende i enlighet med den. Alla eller nĂ€stan alla vanliga mĂ€nniskor tĂ€nker och anvĂ€nder sig av sina moraliska koder som om dessa koder vore normativa, normerande genom att det t. ex. för dem helt enkelt verkar finnas ”mĂ„sten” som gĂ€ller alla och att det ”rakt upp och ner” verkar finnas ”saker” som helt enkelt Ă€r rĂ€tt och fel, gott och ont. Gert Bernard och Gert Joshua har skrivit en artikel kring Ă€mnet hur man kan definiera moralen med titeln “The Definition of Morality” (sv. ”Moralens Definition”). Författarna föreslĂ„r att termen ’normativ moral’ (eller den ’normativa moralen’ i bestĂ€md form) gĂ€ller en kod som reglerar hur man bör uppföra sig som givet vissa specificerade förhĂ„llanden Ă€r sĂ„dan att alla rationella personer skulle omfamna och föresprĂ„ka den. Författarna anser att denna formulering innehĂ„ller viktiga och sanna egenskaper hos definitionen kring vad normativ moral Ă€r, Ă€ven om författarna anser att denna basala, grundlĂ€ggande definition, konception inte Ă€r fullstĂ€ndig och att dĂ€rför vissa ytterligare definitions egenskaper, specifikationer saknas men att alla granskade kandidat-tillĂ€gg till denna basala definition som undersöktes inom artikeln verkade vara kontroversiella, enligt författarna. Normativ moral verkar lĂ€mplig för att undersökas genom att skapa tankeexperiment inom vilka deltagarna tex kan förestĂ€llas stödja, lĂ€gga fram eller agera i enlighet med en moralisk kod. Inom detta stora undersökande projekt av normativ moral med hjĂ€lp av tankeexperiment sĂ„ verkade det enligt mig som om det fanns en under-representation av tankeexperiment som uppvisade vissa vĂ€rdefulla och relevanta egenskaper och jag ansĂ„g att det var ett rĂ€ttfĂ€rdigat projekt att skapa ett tankeexperiment som uppvisade dessa vĂ€rdefulla och relevanta egenskaper. Ett dylikt experiment kunde anses vara en ovanlig ”pusselbit” som kunde vara ett vĂ€rdefullt bidrag till slutförandet av ”pusslet”, dvs vad normativ moral Ă€r och dess kod. De tre under-representerade egenskaperna var i) en hög grad av lĂ€mplighet för att undersöka en stor del av den normativa moraliska koden6eller den kompletta koden och ii) en hög grad av deltagarfrihet, exempelvis avseende deltagarnas handlingar, tankar osv samt iii) en hög grad av förtroende eller rĂ€ttfĂ€rdigande avseende vad deltagarna skulle göra, tĂ€nka, kĂ€nna osv inom tankeexperimentet. Tankeexperimentet, den Normativa Moraliska Kods Workshoppen (NMKW) skapades dĂ€rför med mĂ„lsĂ€ttningen att undersöka den normativa moralen, dess kod samt att experimentet dĂ„ skulle uppvisa de ovan nĂ€mnda egenskaperna. Det Ă€r ett tankeexperiment som liknar, ”speglar” en riktig empirisk studie inom vilka deltagarna ges uppgiften att tillsammans stödja och lĂ€gga fram den moraliska kod som skulle gĂ€lla för dem, reglera deras uppförande och som till en stor del eller fullstĂ€ndigt skulle tĂ€cka, innehĂ„lla det som de ansĂ„g att deras moraliska koder innehöll. Deltagarna som anvĂ€ndes inom min körning av tankeexperimentet var alla nu levande vuxna person som jag ansĂ„g att jag kĂ€nde vĂ€l. KĂ€rn- eller huvudmĂ„lsĂ€ttningen med uppsatsen var att undersöka huruvida det skulle eller inte skulle vara fallet att de flesta eller alla deltagare inom min körning av NMKW tankeexperimentet skulle bestĂ€mma sig för att tillsammans lĂ€gga fram och stödja en kod, med den valda formuleringen för tesen enligt, det skulle inte vara fallet att de flesta eller alla deltagare skulle lĂ€gga fram och stödja koden inom min körning av NMKW experimentet. Som en del av kĂ€rnmĂ„lsĂ€ttningen var det att utreda varför tesen var eller inte var stödd samt utreda hur starkt stödet var för utfallet av experimentet, dvs utfallet att en kod lades fram eller inte lades fram. Uppsatsen har Ă€ven mindre eller bi-mĂ„lsĂ€ttningar som strĂ„lar ut frĂ„n uppsatsens huvudmĂ„lsĂ€ttning (se nedan). I min roll som tanke-experimenteraren sĂ„ rapporterade jag sedan kring vilka hĂ€ndelser som jag förestĂ€llde mig, som jag ”sĂ„g” upptrĂ€da inom tanke-experimentet NMKW dĂ„ mina valda deltagare tog sig an uppgiften som de ombads att utföra, dvs att tillsammans lĂ€gga fram och stödja den kod som skulle komma att gĂ€lla dom sjĂ€lva, att appliceras pĂ„ dom sjĂ€lva. Fyndet var att tesen stöddes och att detta stöd var robust eftersom jag kunde identifiera flera skĂ€l hos deltagarna mot att lĂ€gga fram koden medan jag fann mycket litet i form av skĂ€l hos deltagarna för att lĂ€gga fram koden. Uppsatsen hade Ă€ven en del mindre mĂ„lsĂ€ttningar att selektivt diskutera nĂ„gra ytterligare relevanta och intressanta spörsmĂ„l som strĂ„lade ut frĂ„n uppsatsens huvud-mĂ„lsĂ€ttning. Dessa mindre mĂ„lsĂ€ttningar kretsade kring att diskutera vissa valda tydliga, centrala egenskaper hos NMKW experimentet samt hur dessa kunde tĂ€nkas vara relaterade till experimentets utfall. En sĂ„dan egenskap vara den specifika deltagargruppen som anvĂ€ndes vid min körning av experimentet. Jag diskuterade till exempel, den potentiella extensionen av utfallet att det inte var fallet att de flesta eller alla deltagare valde att lĂ€gga fram koden, ifall deltagargruppen modifierades men fortfarande bestod enbart av nu levande vuxna mĂ€nniskor och min vĂ€rdering var att ett liknande utfall, som vid min körningen av NMKW, verkade troligt för de flesta potentiella grupper av deltagare. Jag ville ocksĂ„ diskutera vissa valda tydliga, centrala egenskaper hos NMKW experimentet inom kontexten kring huruvida NMKW experimentet givet dessa egenskaper, borde anses vara ett osunt, olĂ€mpligt experiment för att undersöka den normativa moralen, givet Gerts och Gerts konception av denna. Detta, eftersom om detta vore fallet sĂ„ borde utfallet av experimentet förkastas och inte ges nĂ„gon vikt. Trots att jag hittade potentiella saker att kritisera hos den experimentella designen hos NMKW sĂ„ hittade jag inte nĂ„gra tillrĂ€ckligt starka skĂ€l för att diskvalificera NMKW experimentet som ett olĂ€mpligt, osunt experiment för att undersöka den normativa moralen, givet den normativa moralens egenskaper beskrivna, tĂ€ckta inom Gerts och Gerts föreslagna basala, grundlĂ€ggande definition av denna. Slutligen sĂ„ ville jag Ă€ven selektivt diskutera vissa aspekter kring vad det kunde betyda för konceptionen av den normativa moralen, enligt Gert och Gert, att tesen stöddes. Exempelvis, sĂ„ givet en tolkning sĂ„ kunde utfallet ses som ett stöd för icke-existensen hos den normativa moraliska koden, medan givet en annan tolkning sĂ„ kunde utfallet anses betyda att ytterligare addenda till den basala definitionen av den normativa moralen mĂ„ste identifieras och adderas till definitionen och att dylika addenda skulle komma att vara sĂ„dana att de skulle diskvalificera NMKW experimentet och dess utfall som ett sunt och lĂ€mpligt experiment att anvĂ€ndas för att studera den normativa moralen, nu med dess extenderade specifikation. Jag försökte sedan att illustrera hur NMKW tankeexperimentet kunde anvĂ€ndas som ett substrat för att underlĂ€tta identifieringen och förtydligandet av dylika potentiella tillĂ€gg till den basala konceptionen av den normativa moralen enligt Gerts och Gerts förslag, och jag föreslog Ă€ven vissa potentiella kandidat egenskaper hos NMKW experimentet som dylika ytterligare tillĂ€gg till den basala konceptionen borde kunna diskvalificera, exkludera som acceptabla egenskaper hos experiment designade för att undersöka den7normativa moralen. PĂ„ detta sĂ€tt sĂ„ kan en ovanlig, underrepresenterad typ av tankeexperiment, ”pusselbit” nĂ€r det gĂ€ller det stora undersökningsprojektet som anvĂ€nder sig av experiment för att erhĂ„lla ytterligare insikter inom den normative moralen, dvs ”pusslet”, oberoende om det verkar passa eller inte passa in i ”pusslet”, Ă€ndĂ„ anvĂ€ndas pĂ„ ett sĂ„dant sĂ€tt sĂ„ att det potentiellt kan leda till ytterligare insikter kring ”pusslet”. Detta eftersom Ă€ven nĂ€r en ”pusselbit” inte verkar passa in i ”pusslet” sĂ„ kan ”seendet”, förtydligandet och förstĂ„elsen kring hur och varför, Ă€ndĂ„ potentiellt förse oss med information om ”pusslet”

    Den Normativa Moraliska Kods Workshoppen : - Ett nytt tankeexperiment Àmnat för att undersöka normativ moral

    No full text
    The normative moral code is considered to be such that it applies universally to all or at least to all who can understand and govern their behavior by it. All or almost all common folk think of and use their own moral codes as them being normative in that for example there simply seem to them to exist “oughts” that apply to all and that there simply, straightforwardly are “things” that are right and wrong, good and bad. Gert Bernard and Gert Joshua have written an article on the topic of defining morality, with the title of “The Definition of Morality”. The authors suggest that the terms ‘normative morality’ refer to a code of conduct that, given some specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational persons. The authors take this formulation as entailing true and important definitional features of what normative morality is, although the authors think of this basic definition, conception as not being complete and that some additional feature hence is lacking but that any such candidate addendum to the definitional basic schema that they surveyed within the article seemed to be controversial, contested. Normative morality seems apt to investigate by creating thought-experiments wherein the participants are for example, envisioned choosing to endorse, put forward or act in accordance with a moral code. Within this large investigative project into normative morality with the help of thought-experiments it seemed to me that there was an under-representation of thought-experiments exhibiting some worthwhile and relevant features and I felt that it was a warranted project to create a thought-experiment which concurrently exhibited these features. Such an experiment could be thought of as an unusual “puzzle-piece” which could be valuable in contributing to furthering the completion of the “puzzle”, i.e. what normative morality is and its moral code. These three features were: i) a high degree of aptness for investigating a major part of or the complete normative moral code and ii) a high degree of freedom pertaining to the participants, e.g. their actions, thoughts etc., as well as iii) a high degree of confidence or warrant concerning what the participants would do, think, feel etc. within the thought-experiment. A thought-experiment, the Normative Moral Codes Workshop (NMCW) was hence created, which was aimed at investigating normative morality and its code and which exhibited these features. It is a thought-experiment mimicking an actual empirical study wherein the participants are given the task to together put forward the moral code for them, that would apply to them and that would cover a major or complete part of what they consider their moral codes to entail. The participants employed within my run of the NMCW thought-experiment were all currently living adult persons who I knew well. The core or main aim of this essay was to investigate whether it would or would not be the case that most or all participants within my run of the thought-experiment the NMCW would decide to put forward the code together with the chosen formulation of the thesis being, that it would not be the case that most or all participants would put forward the code within my run of the NMCW thought-experiment. Part of the core aim was also to elucidate why the thesis was supported or not supported as well as how strong the support was for the outcome of the experiment, i.e. the outcome of a code being put forward or not. The essay also has some minor aims which radiate out from the core aim (see below). As the thought-experimenter, I then reported on the events that I envisioned as happening within my run the NMCW thought-experiment as my selected participants grappled with the task and their decision to put or not put forward the code together that would apply to them. The finding was that the thesis was supported and that the support was robust in that I could identify several reasons the participants had against putting forward the code and I found very little in terms of reasons among the participants for putting forward the code. The essay also had some minor aims to selectively discuss a few further relevant and interesting issues radiating out from the core aim. These minor aims revolved around discussing some selected salient features of the NMCW including how they could relate to the outcome. One such selected salient feature was the feature of the employed participant sample of my run of the NMCW. I for example, discussed the potential extension of it not being the case that most or all participants would decide to put forward the code, if the participant sample would have been modified but still employed currently living5adults and I ended up being of the opinion that pertaining to most potential samples a similar outcome as the one envisioned within my run of the NMCW would be expected. I also wanted to discuss some further selected salient features of the NMCW within the context of addressing whether the NMCW, given its features ought to be considered an unsound, inapt experiment for investigating normative morality, given Gert’s and Gert’s conception of normative morality, since if this was the case the outcome of the experiment ought to be disregarded, given no weight. Although, I did find potential targets for criticism of the NMCW experimental design I did not find any reasons strong enough to disqualify the NMCW experiment as an experiment inapt, unsound for investigating normative morality, given the features of normative morality entailed within the suggested basic definition provided by Gert and Gert. Finally, I also aimed to selectively discuss some aspects of what it could mean pertaining to the conception of normative morality, according to Gert and Gert, that the thesis was supported. For example, given one interpretation the outcome could be taken to provide support for the non-existence of a normative moral code, but given another be taken to mean that addenda has to be identified and added to the basic conception of normative morality and that such addenda would be such that they would disqualify the NMCW (and its outcome) as a sound and apt thought-experiment to be employed in investigating normative morality. I also attempted to briefly illustrate how the NMCW thought-experiment could be used as a substratum facilitating the identification and clarification of such potential addenda to the basic conception of normative morality, suggested by Gert and Gert, and I also suggest some potential candidate features of the NMCW that further potential specifications added to the basic conception of morality ought to be able to disqualify, exclude as acceptable features of experiments aimed at investigating normative morality. In this way, an unusual, under-represented kind of thought-experiment, “puzzle-piece” when it comes to the large investigative project of employing experiments in order to acquire further insight into normative morality, i.e. “the puzzle”, can regardless of whether it seems to fit or does not seem to fit the “puzzle”, still be employed in such a way as to potentially provide further insight into “the puzzle”. This since even when a “puzzle-piece” does not seem to fit the “puzzle”, “seeing” and understanding how and why could provide us with information about the “puzzle”.Den normativa moraliska koden anses vara sĂ„dan att den gĂ€ller universellt för alla eller Ă„tminstone för alla som kan förstĂ„ den och reglera sitt beteende i enlighet med den. Alla eller nĂ€stan alla vanliga mĂ€nniskor tĂ€nker och anvĂ€nder sig av sina moraliska koder som om dessa koder vore normativa, normerande genom att det t. ex. för dem helt enkelt verkar finnas ”mĂ„sten” som gĂ€ller alla och att det ”rakt upp och ner” verkar finnas ”saker” som helt enkelt Ă€r rĂ€tt och fel, gott och ont. Gert Bernard och Gert Joshua har skrivit en artikel kring Ă€mnet hur man kan definiera moralen med titeln “The Definition of Morality” (sv. ”Moralens Definition”). Författarna föreslĂ„r att termen ’normativ moral’ (eller den ’normativa moralen’ i bestĂ€md form) gĂ€ller en kod som reglerar hur man bör uppföra sig som givet vissa specificerade förhĂ„llanden Ă€r sĂ„dan att alla rationella personer skulle omfamna och föresprĂ„ka den. Författarna anser att denna formulering innehĂ„ller viktiga och sanna egenskaper hos definitionen kring vad normativ moral Ă€r, Ă€ven om författarna anser att denna basala, grundlĂ€ggande definition, konception inte Ă€r fullstĂ€ndig och att dĂ€rför vissa ytterligare definitions egenskaper, specifikationer saknas men att alla granskade kandidat-tillĂ€gg till denna basala definition som undersöktes inom artikeln verkade vara kontroversiella, enligt författarna. Normativ moral verkar lĂ€mplig för att undersökas genom att skapa tankeexperiment inom vilka deltagarna tex kan förestĂ€llas stödja, lĂ€gga fram eller agera i enlighet med en moralisk kod. Inom detta stora undersökande projekt av normativ moral med hjĂ€lp av tankeexperiment sĂ„ verkade det enligt mig som om det fanns en under-representation av tankeexperiment som uppvisade vissa vĂ€rdefulla och relevanta egenskaper och jag ansĂ„g att det var ett rĂ€ttfĂ€rdigat projekt att skapa ett tankeexperiment som uppvisade dessa vĂ€rdefulla och relevanta egenskaper. Ett dylikt experiment kunde anses vara en ovanlig ”pusselbit” som kunde vara ett vĂ€rdefullt bidrag till slutförandet av ”pusslet”, dvs vad normativ moral Ă€r och dess kod. De tre under-representerade egenskaperna var i) en hög grad av lĂ€mplighet för att undersöka en stor del av den normativa moraliska koden6eller den kompletta koden och ii) en hög grad av deltagarfrihet, exempelvis avseende deltagarnas handlingar, tankar osv samt iii) en hög grad av förtroende eller rĂ€ttfĂ€rdigande avseende vad deltagarna skulle göra, tĂ€nka, kĂ€nna osv inom tankeexperimentet. Tankeexperimentet, den Normativa Moraliska Kods Workshoppen (NMKW) skapades dĂ€rför med mĂ„lsĂ€ttningen att undersöka den normativa moralen, dess kod samt att experimentet dĂ„ skulle uppvisa de ovan nĂ€mnda egenskaperna. Det Ă€r ett tankeexperiment som liknar, ”speglar” en riktig empirisk studie inom vilka deltagarna ges uppgiften att tillsammans stödja och lĂ€gga fram den moraliska kod som skulle gĂ€lla för dem, reglera deras uppförande och som till en stor del eller fullstĂ€ndigt skulle tĂ€cka, innehĂ„lla det som de ansĂ„g att deras moraliska koder innehöll. Deltagarna som anvĂ€ndes inom min körning av tankeexperimentet var alla nu levande vuxna person som jag ansĂ„g att jag kĂ€nde vĂ€l. KĂ€rn- eller huvudmĂ„lsĂ€ttningen med uppsatsen var att undersöka huruvida det skulle eller inte skulle vara fallet att de flesta eller alla deltagare inom min körning av NMKW tankeexperimentet skulle bestĂ€mma sig för att tillsammans lĂ€gga fram och stödja en kod, med den valda formuleringen för tesen enligt, det skulle inte vara fallet att de flesta eller alla deltagare skulle lĂ€gga fram och stödja koden inom min körning av NMKW experimentet. Som en del av kĂ€rnmĂ„lsĂ€ttningen var det att utreda varför tesen var eller inte var stödd samt utreda hur starkt stödet var för utfallet av experimentet, dvs utfallet att en kod lades fram eller inte lades fram. Uppsatsen har Ă€ven mindre eller bi-mĂ„lsĂ€ttningar som strĂ„lar ut frĂ„n uppsatsens huvudmĂ„lsĂ€ttning (se nedan). I min roll som tanke-experimenteraren sĂ„ rapporterade jag sedan kring vilka hĂ€ndelser som jag förestĂ€llde mig, som jag ”sĂ„g” upptrĂ€da inom tanke-experimentet NMKW dĂ„ mina valda deltagare tog sig an uppgiften som de ombads att utföra, dvs att tillsammans lĂ€gga fram och stödja den kod som skulle komma att gĂ€lla dom sjĂ€lva, att appliceras pĂ„ dom sjĂ€lva. Fyndet var att tesen stöddes och att detta stöd var robust eftersom jag kunde identifiera flera skĂ€l hos deltagarna mot att lĂ€gga fram koden medan jag fann mycket litet i form av skĂ€l hos deltagarna för att lĂ€gga fram koden. Uppsatsen hade Ă€ven en del mindre mĂ„lsĂ€ttningar att selektivt diskutera nĂ„gra ytterligare relevanta och intressanta spörsmĂ„l som strĂ„lade ut frĂ„n uppsatsens huvud-mĂ„lsĂ€ttning. Dessa mindre mĂ„lsĂ€ttningar kretsade kring att diskutera vissa valda tydliga, centrala egenskaper hos NMKW experimentet samt hur dessa kunde tĂ€nkas vara relaterade till experimentets utfall. En sĂ„dan egenskap vara den specifika deltagargruppen som anvĂ€ndes vid min körning av experimentet. Jag diskuterade till exempel, den potentiella extensionen av utfallet att det inte var fallet att de flesta eller alla deltagare valde att lĂ€gga fram koden, ifall deltagargruppen modifierades men fortfarande bestod enbart av nu levande vuxna mĂ€nniskor och min vĂ€rdering var att ett liknande utfall, som vid min körningen av NMKW, verkade troligt för de flesta potentiella grupper av deltagare. Jag ville ocksĂ„ diskutera vissa valda tydliga, centrala egenskaper hos NMKW experimentet inom kontexten kring huruvida NMKW experimentet givet dessa egenskaper, borde anses vara ett osunt, olĂ€mpligt experiment för att undersöka den normativa moralen, givet Gerts och Gerts konception av denna. Detta, eftersom om detta vore fallet sĂ„ borde utfallet av experimentet förkastas och inte ges nĂ„gon vikt. Trots att jag hittade potentiella saker att kritisera hos den experimentella designen hos NMKW sĂ„ hittade jag inte nĂ„gra tillrĂ€ckligt starka skĂ€l för att diskvalificera NMKW experimentet som ett olĂ€mpligt, osunt experiment för att undersöka den normativa moralen, givet den normativa moralens egenskaper beskrivna, tĂ€ckta inom Gerts och Gerts föreslagna basala, grundlĂ€ggande definition av denna. Slutligen sĂ„ ville jag Ă€ven selektivt diskutera vissa aspekter kring vad det kunde betyda för konceptionen av den normativa moralen, enligt Gert och Gert, att tesen stöddes. Exempelvis, sĂ„ givet en tolkning sĂ„ kunde utfallet ses som ett stöd för icke-existensen hos den normativa moraliska koden, medan givet en annan tolkning sĂ„ kunde utfallet anses betyda att ytterligare addenda till den basala definitionen av den normativa moralen mĂ„ste identifieras och adderas till definitionen och att dylika addenda skulle komma att vara sĂ„dana att de skulle diskvalificera NMKW experimentet och dess utfall som ett sunt och lĂ€mpligt experiment att anvĂ€ndas för att studera den normativa moralen, nu med dess extenderade specifikation. Jag försökte sedan att illustrera hur NMKW tankeexperimentet kunde anvĂ€ndas som ett substrat för att underlĂ€tta identifieringen och förtydligandet av dylika potentiella tillĂ€gg till den basala konceptionen av den normativa moralen enligt Gerts och Gerts förslag, och jag föreslog Ă€ven vissa potentiella kandidat egenskaper hos NMKW experimentet som dylika ytterligare tillĂ€gg till den basala konceptionen borde kunna diskvalificera, exkludera som acceptabla egenskaper hos experiment designade för att undersöka den7normativa moralen. PĂ„ detta sĂ€tt sĂ„ kan en ovanlig, underrepresenterad typ av tankeexperiment, ”pusselbit” nĂ€r det gĂ€ller det stora undersökningsprojektet som anvĂ€nder sig av experiment för att erhĂ„lla ytterligare insikter inom den normative moralen, dvs ”pusslet”, oberoende om det verkar passa eller inte passa in i ”pusslet”, Ă€ndĂ„ anvĂ€ndas pĂ„ ett sĂ„dant sĂ€tt sĂ„ att det potentiellt kan leda till ytterligare insikter kring ”pusslet”. Detta eftersom Ă€ven nĂ€r en ”pusselbit” inte verkar passa in i ”pusslet” sĂ„ kan ”seendet”, förtydligandet och förstĂ„elsen kring hur och varför, Ă€ndĂ„ potentiellt förse oss med information om ”pusslet”

    Bipolar Disorder and Bone Mineral Density Z-Scores in Relation to Clinical Characteristics and Lithium Medication

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    Bipolar disorder is associated with a long range of medical comorbidities, including migraine, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Bipolar disorder has also been associated with an increased risk of bone fractures. Osteoporosis is a reduction in bone mineral density, which leads to an increased risk for fragility fractures. Currently there is limited research on the association between bipolar disorder and osteoporosis. We aimed to study the association between high and low bone mineral density in relation to disease and treatment history in a sample of bipolar patients. We found that bipolar patients with high bone mineral density were more often on lithium medication, had a more active lifestyle and expressed lower current disease burden. Low mineral density was not associated with any of the addressed aspects of disease and treatment history. In conclusion our results support that patients on lithium treatment have higher bone mineral density; further studies are needed to address if lithium medication causes an increase in bone mineral density, and lowers the risk of bone fractures in bipolar disorder

    Association between gastrointestinal symptoms and affectivity in patients with bipolar disorder

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    AIM: To study if anxiety, depression and experience of stress are associated with gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms in patients with bipolar disorder. METHODS: A total of 136 patients with bipolar disorder (mean age 49.9 years; 61% women) and 136 controls from the general population (mean age 51.0 years; 60% women) were included in the study. GI symptoms were assessed with The Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale-irritable bowel syndrome (GSRS-IBS), level of anxiety and depression with The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) and stress-proneness with Perceived Stress Questionnaire. Over a ten year period, all visits in primary care were retrospectively recorded in order to identify functional GI disorders. RESULTS: In subjects with low total HADS-score, there were no significant differences in GI-symptoms between patients and controls (GSRS-IBS 7.0 vs 6.5, P = 0.513). In the patients with bipolar disorder there were significant correlations between all GSRS and HADS subscores for all symptom clusters except for "constipation" and "reflux". Factors associated to GI symptoms in the patient group were female sex (adjusted OR = 2.37, 95%CI: 1.07-5.24) and high HADS-Depression score (adjusted OR = 3.64, 95%CI: 1.07-12.4). These patients had also significantly more visits for IBS than patients with low HADS-Depression scores (29% vs 8%, P = 0.008). However, there was no significant differences in consulting behaviour for functional GI disorders between patients and controls (25% vs 17%, P = 0.108). CONCLUSION: Female patients and patients with high HADS depression score reported significantly more GI symptoms, whereas patients with low HADS scores did not differ from control subjects

    Illustration of relative hypo- and hypercortisolism in relation to depression, anxiety, global functioning and life quality.

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    <p>Post-DST cortisol groups were formed by using the 25th and 75th percentiles among the controls as cut-offs to divide both controls and patients into 3 groups. A low post DST cortisol value (subjects below the 25th percentile) was used to identify subjects exhibiting relative hypocortisolism and a high post DST cortisol value (subjects above the 75th percentile) was used to identify subjects exhibiting relative hypercortisolism. Subjects showing post DST cortisol values between the 25th and 75th percentiles were identified as subjects exhibiting eucortisolism. The bars illustrate the differences in mean questionnaire scores relative to the mean of the whole bipolar patient sample which is indicated by the base-line. A bar marked with an asterisk denotes a significant difference, evaluated using Student's t-test, between relative hypocortisolism or relative hypercortisolism and the reference group exhibiting eucortisolism. The error bars represent standard errors. BAI, Beck Anxiety Inventory; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; DST, Dexamethasone Suppression Test; GAF, Global Assessment of Functioning (best period of three months last year); QOL, Overall Quality of Life and general health. *p<0.05.</p
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