Glossina hytrosavirus control strategies in tsetse fly factories: application of infectomics in virus management

African trypanosomosis is a fatal zoonotic disease transmitted by tsetse flies (Diptera; Glossinidae); blood-sucking insects found only in sub-Saharan Africa. Two forms of trypanosomoses occur: the animal African trypanosomosis (AAT; nagana), and the human African trypanosomosis (HAT; sleeping sickness). Since there are no effective vaccines against trypanosomosis, tsetse fly eradication is the most effective disease control method. Tsetse flies can be effectively eradicated by the sterile insect technique (SIT), which is applied in an area-wide integrated pest management approach. SIT is an environmentally benign method with a long and solid record of accomplishments. SIT requires large-scale production of sexually sterilized male flies (by exposure to a precise and specific dose of ionizing radiation, usually from a 60Co or 137Ce source), which are sequentially released into a target wild insect population to out-compete wild type males in inseminating wild virgin females. Once inseminated by sterile males, the virgin females do not produce viable progeny flies. Importantly, these females do not typically re-mate. Ultimately, the target wild insect population can decrease to extinction. However, tsetse SIT programs are faced with a unique problem: laboratory colonies of many tsetse species are infected by the Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus (GpSGHV; family Hytrosaviridae). GpSGHV-infected flies have male aspermia or oligospermia, underdeveloped female ovarioles, sterility, salivary gland hypertrophy syndrome (SGH), distorted sex ratios, and reduced insemination rates. Without proper management, symptomatic GpSGHV infections (characterized by SGH symptoms) can cause collapse of Glossina colonies. To ensure colony productivity and survival, GpSGHV management strategies are required. This will ensure a sustained supply of sterile males for SIT programs. The aim of this PhD research was to investigate the functional and structural genomics and proteomics (infectomics) of GpSGHV as a prerequisite to development of rationally designed viral control strategies. A series of experiments were designed to: (i) investigate epidemiology and diversity of GpSGHV; (ii) identify GpSGHV proteome and how viral and host proteins contribute to the pathobiology of the virus; and (iii) investigate the interplay between GpSGHV, the microbiome and the host, and how these interactions influence the outcomes of viral infections. By relating GpSGHV and host infectomics data, cost-effective viral management strategies were developed. This resulted in significant reduction of GpSGHV loads and elimination of SGH from laboratory colonies of G. pallidipes. </p

Proteomic analysis of Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus virions for immune intervention in tsetse fly colonies

Many species of tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) can be infected by a virus that causes salivary gland hypertrophy (SGH). The viruses isolated from Glossina pallidipes (GpSGHV) and Musca somestica (MdSGHV) have recently been sequenced. Tsetse flies with SGH have a reduced fecundity and fertility which cause a serious problem for mass rearing in the frame of sterile insect technique (SIT) programs to control and eradicate tsetse populations in the wild. A potential intervention strategy to mitigate viral infections in fly colonies is neutralizing of the GpSGHV infection with specific antibodies against virion proteins. Two major GpSGHV virion proteins of about 130 kDa and 50 kDa, respectively, were identified by Western analysis using polyclonal rabbit antibody raised against whole GpSHGV virions. The proteome of GpSGHV, containing the antigens responsible for the immune-response, was investigated by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and 61 virion proteins were identified by comparison with the genome sequence. Specific antibodies were produced in rabbits against seven candidate proteins including the ORF10 / C-terminal fragment, ORF47 and ORF96 as well as proteins involved in peroral infectivity PIF-1 (ORF102), PIF-2 (ORF53), PIF-3 (ORF76) and P74 (ORF1). Antiserum against ORF10 specifically reacted to the 130 kDa protein in a Western blot analysis and to the envelope of GpSGHV using immunogold-EM. This result suggests that immune intervention of viral infections in colonies of G. pallidipes is a realistic optio

Managing hytrosavirus infections in Glossina pallidipes colonies: Feeding regime affects the prevalence of the salivary gland hypertrophy syndrome

Many species of tsetse flies are infected by a virus that causes salivary gland hypertrophy (SGH) syndrome and the virus isolated from Glossina pallidipes (GpSGHV) has recently been sequenced. Flies with SGH have a reduced fecundity and fertility. Due to the deleterious impact of SGHV on G. pallidipes colonies, several approaches were investigated to develop a virus management strategy. Horizontal virus transmission is the major cause of the high prevalence of the GpSGHV in tsetse colonies. Implementation of a “clean feeding” regime (fresh blood offered to each set of flies so that there is only one feed per membrane), instead of the regular feeding regime (several successive feeds per membrane), was among the proposed approaches to reduce GpSGHV infections. However, due to the absence of disposable feeding equipment (feeding trays and silicone membranes), the implementation of a clean feeding approach remains economically difficult. We developed a new clean feeding approach applicable to large-scale tsetse production facilities using existing resources. The results indicate that implementing this approach is feasible and leads to a significant reduction in virus load from 109 virus copies in regular colonies to an average of 102.5 and eliminates the SGH syndrome from clean feeding colonies by28 months post implementation of this approach. The clean feeding approach also reduced the virus load from an average of 108 virus copy numbers to an average of 103 virus copies and SGH prevalence of 10% to 4% in flies fed after the clean fed colony. Taken together, these data indicate that the clean feeding approach is applicable in large-scale G. pallidipes production facilities and eliminates the deleterious effects of the virus and the SGH syndrome in these colonies

Virology, Epidemiology and Pathology of Glossina Hytrosavirus, and Its Control Prospects in Laboratory Colonies of the Tsetse Fly, Glossina pallidipes (Diptera; Glossinidae)

The Glossina hytrosavirus (family Hytrosaviridae) is a double-stranded DNA virus with rod-shaped, enveloped virions. Its 190 kbp genome encodes 160 putative open reading frames. The virus replicates in the nucleus, and acquires a fragile envelope in the cell cytoplasm. Glossina hytrosavirus was first isolated from hypertrophied salivary glands of the tsetse fly, Glossina pallidipes Austen (Diptera; Glossinidae) collected in Kenya in 1986. A certain proportion of laboratory G. pallidipes flies infected by Glossina hytrosavirus develop hypertrophied salivary glands and midgut epithelial cells, gonadal anomalies and distorted sex-ratios associated with reduced insemination rates, fecundity and lifespan. These symptoms are rare in wild tsetse populations. In East Africa, G. pallidipes is one of the most important vectors of African trypanosomosis, a debilitating zoonotic disease that afflicts 37 sub-Saharan African countries. There is a large arsenal of control tactics available to manage tsetse flies and the disease they transmit. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a robust control tactic that has shown to be effective in eradicating tsetse populations when integrated with other control tactics in an area-wide integrated approach. The SIT requires production of sterile male flies in large production facilities. To supply sufficient numbers of sterile males for the SIT component against G. pallidipes, strategies have to be developed that enable the management of the Glossina hytrosavirus in the colonies. This review provides a historic chronology of the emergence and biogeography of Glossina hytrosavirus, and includes researches on the infectomics (defined here as the functional and structural genomics and proteomics) and pathobiology of the virus. Standard operation procedures for viral management in tsetse mass-rearing facilities are proposed and a future outlook is sketched

Trans-generational transmission of the Glossina pallidipes hytrosavirus depends on the presence of a functional symbiome

The vertically transmitted endosymbionts (Sodalis glossinidius and Wigglesworthia glossinidia) of the tsetse fly (Diptera: Glossinidae) are known to supplement dietary deficiencies and modulate the reproductive fitness and the defense system of the fly. Some tsetse fly species are also infected with the bacterium, Wolbachia and with the Glossina hytrosavirus (GpSGHV). Laboratory-bred G. pallidipes exhibit chronic asymptomatic and acute symptomatic GpSGHV infection, with the former being the most common in these colonies. However, under as yet undefined conditions, the asymptomatic state can convert to the symptomatic state, leading to detectable salivary gland hypertrophy (SGH+) syndrome. In this study, we investigated the interplay between the bacterial symbiome and GpSGHV during development of G. pallidipes by knocking down the symbionts with antibiotic. Intrahaemocoelic injection of GpSGHV led to high virus titre (109 virus copies), but was not accompanied by either the onset of detectable SGH+, or release of detectable virus particles into the blood meals during feeding events. When the F1 generations of GpSGHV-challenged mothers were dissected within 24 h post-eclosion, SGH+ was observed to increase from 4.5% in the first larviposition cycle to >95% in the fourth cycle. Despite being sterile, these F1 SGH+ progeny mated readily. Removal of the tsetse symbiome, however, suppressed transgenerational transfer of the virus via milk secretions and blocked the ability of GpSGHV to infect salivary glands of the F1 progeny. Whereas GpSGHV infects and replicates in salivary glands of developing pupa, the virus is unable to induce SGH+ within fully differentiated adult salivary glands. The F1 SGH+ adults are responsible for the GpSGHV-induced colony collapse in tsetse factories. Our data suggest that GpSGHV has co-evolved with the tsetse symbiome and that the symbionts play key roles in the virus transmission from mother to progeny

Sero-surveillance of Rift Valley fever in sheep and goat flocks in high risk areas in Kenya.

The surveillance of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) was carried out in the risk areas of Kenya by monitoring free range/migratory and sedentary farm sheep and goat herds for antibodies to RVF virus (RVFV). A total of 986 serum samples were collected and analyzed from farms in Molo, (where no outbreaks has ever been previously reported), Naivasha, (an RVF-endemic area and where the first case of RVF was reported in Kenya), Kajiado, (where there had been reports of an RVF-like disease) and Shompole, (a chief transmigratory livestock-route and market on the Kenya/Tanzania border). Of the total sera tested, 16.9% (164/966), 8.4% (81/966) and 4.1% (39/966) were found to be positive by IgG-sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), IgM-capture ELISA and serum neutralization (SN) tests respectively. On average, the percentages of sera testing positive for antibodies from sedentary farm herds (Molo, Nakuru and Naivasha) were higher than those from the free-range herds (Kajiado, Namanga, Magadi and Shompole). Although no IgM antibodies were detected in sera from Molo, a significant percentage of the sera showed presence of IgG antibodies. This study also confirms that the RVF-like disease that had been informally reported in the pastoralist areas of Namanga and Kajiado was actually RVF

Proteomic footprints of a member of Glossinavirus (Hytrosaviridae): An expeditious approach to virus control strategies in tsetse factories

The Glossinavirus (Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus (GpSGHV)) is a rod-shaped enveloped insect virus containing a 190,032bp-long, circular dsDNA genome. The virus is pathogenic for the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes and has been associated with the collapse of selected mass-reared colonies. Maintenance of productive fly colonies is critical to tsetse and trypanosomiasis eradication in sub-Saharan Africa using the Sterile Insect Technique. Proteomics, an approach to define the expressed protein complement of a genome, was used to further our understanding of the protein composition, morphology, morphogenesis and pathology of GpSGHV. Additionally, this approach provides potential targets for novel and sustainable molecular-based antiviral strategies to control viral infections in tsetse colonies. To achieve this goal, identification of key protein partners involved in virus transmission is required. In this review, we integrate the available data on GpSGHV proteomics to assess the impact of viral infections on host metabolism and to understand the contributions of such perturbations to viral pathogenesis. The relevance of the proteome findings to tsetse and trypanosomiasis management in sub-Sahara Africa is also considered

Dynamics of the salivary gland hypertrophy virus in laboratory colonies of Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae)

Many species of tsetse flies are infected by a virus that causes salivary gland hypertrophy (SGH) and the virus isolated from Glossina pallidipes (GpSGHV) has recently been sequenced. Flies with SGH have a reduced fecundity and fertility. To better understand the impact of this virus in a laboratory colony of G. pallidipes, where the majority of flies are infected but asymptomatic, and to follow the development of SGH in the offspring of symptomatic infected flies, we examined the progeny of tsetse flies reared under different conditions. The results show that the progeny of asymptomatic parents did not develop SGH, while the progeny of symptomatic female flies mated with asymptomatic males developed a high rate of SGH (65% in male and 100% in females) and these flies were sterile. Stress in the form of high fly density in holding cages (180 flies/cage) and high temperature (30 °C) in the holding room did not affect the prevalence of the SGH. The virus is excreted in the saliva and there is a strong correlation between the infection status (negative, slight or strong by PCR) and the numbers of virus particles released into the blood on which the flies were fed. On average, around 102 and 107 virus particles were found in the blood after feeding asymptomatic or symptomatic infected flies respectively. Feeding the flies on new blood at every feed for three generations caused a significant reduction in the virus copy number in these flies when compared with the virus copy number in flies fed under the normal feeding regime. The results of these studies allowed the initiation of colony management protocols that aim to minimize the risk of horizontal transmission and to enable the establishment of colonies with a low virus prevalence or possibly even those that are virus fre

Correlation between structure, protein composition, morphogenesis and cytopathology of Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus

The Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus (GpSGHV) is a dsDNA virus with rod-shaped, enveloped virions. Its 190-kb genome contains 160 putative protein-coding open reading frames (ORFs). Here, structural components, protein composition and associated aspects of GpSGHV morphogenesis and cytopathology were investigated. Four morphologically distinct structures: nucleocapsid, tegument, envelope, and helical surface projections, were observed in purified GpSGHV virions by electron microscopy. Nucleocapsids were present in virogenic stroma within the nuclei of infected salivary gland cells, whereas enveloped virions were located in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm of infected cells appeared disordered and the plasma membranes disintegrated. Treatment of virions with 1% Nonidet P-40 efficiently partitioned the virions into envelope and nucleocapsid fractions. The fractions were separated by 12% SDS-PAGE followed by in-gel trypsin digestion and analysis of the tryptic peptides by LC-MS/MS. Using the MaxQuant program with Andromeda as a database search engine, a total of forty-five viral proteins were identified. Of these, ten and fifteen were associated with the envelope and the nucleocapsid fractions respectively, while twenty were detected in both fractions, most likely representing tegument proteins. In addition, fifty-one host-derived proteins were identified in the proteome of the virus particle, thirteen of which were verified to be incorporated into the mature virion using a proteinase K protection assay. This study provides important information about GpSGHV biology and suggests options for development of future anti-GpSGHV strategies by interfering with virus-host interactions

Rift Valley Fever Risk Map Model and Seroprevalence in Selected Wild Ungulates and Camels from Kenya

Since the first isolation of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) in the 1930s, there have been multiple epizootics and epidemics in animals and humans in sub-Saharan Africa. Prospective climate-based models have recently been developed that flag areas at risk of RVFV transmission in endemic regions based on key environmental indicators that precede Rift Valley fever (RVF) epizootics and epidemics. Although the timing and locations of human case data from the 2006–2007 RVF outbreak in Kenya have been compared to risk zones flagged by the model, seroprevalence of RVF antibodies in wildlife has not yet been analyzed in light of temporal and spatial predictions of RVF activity. Primarily wild ungulate serum samples from periods before, during, and after the 2006–2007 RVF epizootic were analyzed for the presence of RVFV IgM and/or IgG antibody. Results show an increase in RVF seropositivity from samples collected in 2007 (31.8%), compared to antibody prevalence observed from 2000–2006 (3.3%). After the epizootic, average RVF seropositivity diminished to 5% in samples collected from 2008–2009. Overlaying maps of modeled RVF risk assessments with sampling locations indicated positive RVF serology in several species of wild ungulate in or near areas flagged as being at risk for RVF. Our results establish the need to continue and expand sero-surveillance of wildlife species Kenya and elsewhere in the Horn of Africa to further calibrate and improve the RVF risk model, and better understand the dynamics of RVFV transmission