Leading rural land conflict as citizens and leaving it as denizens : Inside forest conservation politics in Burkina Faso

Based on an empirical study of struggles concerning access to land and political inclusion (and exclusion) in the context of a forest conservation project in rural Burkina Faso, this paper analyses environmental politics through the lens of citizenship. In Centre-east Burkina Faso, a peasant resistance to a newly demarcated forest conservation zone turns into an identity and political conflict involving an international conservation organization, the state, decentralized and customary authorities. Based on shared history and residency, a new citizenship of migrants had emerged. These new citizens, finding their given lands within the new forest conservation area, rejected the project-proposed forest boundaries, put forward their citizenship entitlements and engaged in resistance. Eventually they also found themselves in conflict with their polity, lost their claims along with their still-fragile citizenship. Consequently, they were evicted from the forest and labelled as les deguerpis, denied citizenship and became denizens. Beyond confirming the fragile, processual, nature of citizenship these findings also bear theoretical and conceptual implications, challenge the mainstream way environmental politics are analysed and suggest the need to understand political belonging and citizenship as the very basis of environmental struggles.Peer reviewe

Where is local democracy? : In the shadows of global forest policy in Burkina Faso

Democracy as the government of the people by the people and for the people, equally represented is one of the most contested claims worldwide yet cherished by many and associated with a universal human right. The word “democracy” did not appear in the global participatory forest policy i.e., the shifting of global forest paradigm toward more participation in the 1970s. However, one of the core ideas of democracy, namely the right of local people to participate in the decision making over the use and management of their forest resources underpinned the policy proposal. Donors and international development agencies subscribed to these principles and aimed to translate them into local contexts. Likewise, central government in sub-Sahara Africa, specifically in Burkina Faso undertook political decentralization reforms and participatory forest management programmes to implement these principles of inclusion and self-determination at the local level. However, in practice, participatory forest policy and decentralization still await an effective devolution of decision-making authority to local people and the improvement of their livelihoods. In addition, the state and non-state policy translators as above continue to choose processes, plan and implement environmental projects, often in partnerships with other than the democratically elected bodies. In doing so, they risk privatizing common resources, undermine democratization, shrink the public domain and limit citizenship and the spaces available for local people’s engagement in forest management. While literature exists on those issues, it remains unclear how these three dimensions of local democracy i.e., representation, citizenship and public domain operate under environmental interventions in the context of Burkina Faso. Therefore, I ask how participatory forest policy is translated at the local level in sub-Sahara Africa, specifically in Burkina Faso. How do the translation processes influence local democracy? I adopted a policy translation perspective and the theoretical lens of the “choice and recognition” framework to assess the democracy effects of forestry interventions namely on local peoples’ representation, citizenship and the public domain. I investigated these three components of local democracy through four articles included in this dissertation using qualitative research methods. The results showed that in Burkina Faso, global forest policy was translated at the local level through political decentralization reforms and participatory forestry projects. The choices of local institutions made by the project implementers influenced the substantive representation of local people’s interests and the effectiveness of forest restoration outcomes (Article II). The forestry interventions unintentionally produced uneven forms of citizenship, turning citizens into denizens i.e., those whose citizenships was revoked (Article III). Lastly, Articles IV and I depicted the multi-layered and complex dynamics in the public domain, continually contested by both customary and post-colonial state logics. From the findings, it can be inferred that participatory forestry has the potential to strengthen local democracy through political decentralisation. However, the current policy translation processes can undermine democratisation. Thus, I recommend to more systematically pay attention and integrate indicators of local democracy when trying to apply global forest policies in a local context.Demokratia on määritelty kansan hallitukseksi, ihmisiltä ihmisille tasavertaisesti edustettuna. Demokratian täsmällisestä määritelmästä ei ole selvää yksimielisyyttä, mutta maailmanlaajuisesti monet vaalivat demokratiaa ja se liitetään yleismaailmaisiin ihmisoikeuksiin. Kansainvälinen yhteisö hyväksyi 1970-luvulla osallistavan metsäpolitiikan demokratian toteuttamiseksi metsäalalla. Tämän maailmanlaajuisen metsäpolitiikan tavoitteena oli edistää yhtä demokratian ydinajatuksista erityisesti paikallisten ihmisten oikeutta osallistua päätöksentekoon metsävarojensa käytöstä ja hoidosta. Samoin Saharan eteläpuolisen Afrikan, etenkin Burkina Fason, keskushallinto ryhtyi poliittisiin hajauttamisuudistuksiin ja osallistuviin metsänhoito-ohjelmiin näiden osallisuuden ja itsemääräämisoikeuden periaatteiden toteuttamiseksi paikallisella tasolla. Siksi kysyn, miten osallistavaa metsäpolitiikkaa pannaan täytäntöön paikallisella tasolla Saharan eteläpuolisessa Afrikassa, erityisesti Burkina Fasossa. Kuinka toteutusprosessit vaikuttavat paikalliseen demokratiaan? Väitöskirjaan sisältyy neljä artikkelia. Jokainen artikkeli käsitteli yhtä tai useampaa näistä kolmesta paikallisen demokratian osatekijästä. Käytin laadullisia tutkimusmenetelmiä, mukaan lukien haastattelut Burkina Fason viranomaisten, yksityisen sektorin toimijoiden ja paikallisten ihmisten kanssa. Tulokset osoittivat, että Burkina Fasossa globaali metsäpolitiikka toteutettiin paikallisella tasolla poliittisten hajauttamisuudistusten ja osallistavien metsähankkeiden avulla. Artikkeleista saatiin seuraavat tulokset: 1. Metsähankkeissa hankkeen vetäjät valitsivat paikalliset toimijat, joiden tulisi osallistua projektitoimintaan ja metsänhoitoon. Valitsemansa toimijat eivät edusta koko yhteisön etuja, vaan pelkästään heidän yksityisiä intressejään, joten projektin tulokset eivät vahvistaneet paikallista demokratiaa. Tämän seurauksena suurempi yhteisö ei voinut osallistua metsänhoitoon eikä hyötyä metsän kunnostamistoimista 2. Metsähankkeet voivat luoda konfliktin kyläläisten välillä metsävarojen käytöstä. Näiden konfliktien ratkaisemisen jälkeen tapauksen häviäjät voivat kohdata haittoja kylässä, ja siten he voivat menettää identiteettinsä ja tunnetta yhteisöönsä kuulumisesta. Toisin sanoen, he voivat menettää kansalaisuudentunteen paikallisella alueella ja tulla sitten kielteiseksi (ts. Ne, joiden kansalaisuus on peruutettu). 3. Metsänhoidossa valtiolla on lakeja ja määräyksiä, mutta käytännössä tavanomainen järjestelmä määrittelee kenellä on pääsy metsävaroihin, kuka voi osallistua päätöksentekoon ja kuka voi hyötyä metsistä. Metsähankkeet jättävät nämä monimutkaisuudet usein huomiotta hankkeissaan; mikä johtaa projektin epäonnistumisiin ja kestämättömään metsänhoitoon. Tulosten perusteella teen johtopäätöksen, että osallistava metsäpolitiikka voi vahvistaa paikallista demokratiaa poliittisen hajauttamisen avulla. Siksi suosittelen kehitysjärjestöille ja hallituksille kiinnittämään huomiota, ja integroimaan paikallisen demokratian indikaattorit yrittäessään soveltaa globaalia metsäpolitiikkaa paikallisessa yhteydessä

Missä on paikallinen demokratia? : Burkina Fason globaalin metsäpolitiikan varjossa

Democracy as the government of the people by the people and for the people, equally represented is one of the most contested claims worldwide yet cherished by many and associated with a universal human right. The word “democracy” did not appear in the global participatory forest policy i.e., the shifting of global forest paradigm toward more participation in the 1970s. However, one of the core ideas of democracy, namely the right of local people to participate in the decision making over the use and management of their forest resources underpinned the policy proposal. Donors and international development agencies subscribed to these principles and aimed to translate them into local contexts. Likewise, central government in sub-Sahara Africa, specifically in Burkina Faso undertook political decentralization reforms and participatory forest management programmes to implement these principles of inclusion and self-determination at the local level. However, in practice, participatory forest policy and decentralization still await an effective devolution of decision-making authority to local people and the improvement of their livelihoods. In addition, the state and non-state policy translators as above continue to choose processes, plan and implement environmental projects, often in partnerships with other than the democratically elected bodies. In doing so, they risk privatizing common resources, undermine democratization, shrink the public domain and limit citizenship and the spaces available for local people’s engagement in forest management. While literature exists on those issues, it remains unclear how these three dimensions of local democracy i.e., representation, citizenship and public domain operate under environmental interventions in the context of Burkina Faso. Therefore, I ask how participatory forest policy is translated at the local level in sub-Sahara Africa, specifically in Burkina Faso. How do the translation processes influence local democracy? I adopted a policy translation perspective and the theoretical lens of the “choice and recognition” framework to assess the democracy effects of forestry interventions namely on local peoples’ representation, citizenship and the public domain. I investigated these three components of local democracy through four articles included in this dissertation using qualitative research methods. The results showed that in Burkina Faso, global forest policy was translated at the local level through political decentralization reforms and participatory forestry projects. The choices of local institutions made by the project implementers influenced the substantive representation of local people’s interests and the effectiveness of forest restoration outcomes (Article II). The forestry interventions unintentionally produced uneven forms of citizenship, turning citizens into denizens i.e., those whose citizenships was revoked (Article III). Lastly, Articles IV and I depicted the multi-layered and complex dynamics in the public domain, continually contested by both customary and post-colonial state logics. From the findings, it can be inferred that participatory forestry has the potential to strengthen local democracy through political decentralisation. However, the current policy translation processes can undermine democratisation. Thus, I recommend to more systematically pay attention and integrate indicators of local democracy when trying to apply global forest policies in a local context.Demokratia on määritelty kansan hallitukseksi, ihmisiltä ihmisille tasavertaisesti edustettuna. Demokratian täsmällisestä määritelmästä ei ole selvää yksimielisyyttä, mutta maailmanlaajuisesti monet vaalivat demokratiaa ja se liitetään yleismaailmaisiin ihmisoikeuksiin. Kansainvälinen yhteisö hyväksyi 1970-luvulla osallistavan metsäpolitiikan demokratian toteuttamiseksi metsäalalla. Tämän maailmanlaajuisen metsäpolitiikan tavoitteena oli edistää yhtä demokratian ydinajatuksista erityisesti paikallisten ihmisten oikeutta osallistua päätöksentekoon metsävarojensa käytöstä ja hoidosta. Samoin Saharan eteläpuolisen Afrikan, etenkin Burkina Fason, keskushallinto ryhtyi poliittisiin hajauttamisuudistuksiin ja osallistuviin metsänhoito-ohjelmiin näiden osallisuuden ja itsemääräämisoikeuden periaatteiden toteuttamiseksi paikallisella tasolla. Siksi kysyn, miten osallistavaa metsäpolitiikkaa pannaan täytäntöön paikallisella tasolla Saharan eteläpuolisessa Afrikassa, erityisesti Burkina Fasossa. Kuinka toteutusprosessit vaikuttavat paikalliseen demokratiaan? Väitöskirjaan sisältyy neljä artikkelia. Jokainen artikkeli käsitteli yhtä tai useampaa näistä kolmesta paikallisen demokratian osatekijästä. Käytin laadullisia tutkimusmenetelmiä, mukaan lukien haastattelut Burkina Fason viranomaisten, yksityisen sektorin toimijoiden ja paikallisten ihmisten kanssa. Tulokset osoittivat, että Burkina Fasossa globaali metsäpolitiikka toteutettiin paikallisella tasolla poliittisten hajauttamisuudistusten ja osallistavien metsähankkeiden avulla. Artikkeleista saatiin seuraavat tulokset: 1. Metsähankkeissa hankkeen vetäjät valitsivat paikalliset toimijat, joiden tulisi osallistua projektitoimintaan ja metsänhoitoon. Valitsemansa toimijat eivät edusta koko yhteisön etuja, vaan pelkästään heidän yksityisiä intressejään, joten projektin tulokset eivät vahvistaneet paikallista demokratiaa. Tämän seurauksena suurempi yhteisö ei voinut osallistua metsänhoitoon eikä hyötyä metsän kunnostamistoimista 2. Metsähankkeet voivat luoda konfliktin kyläläisten välillä metsävarojen käytöstä. Näiden konfliktien ratkaisemisen jälkeen tapauksen häviäjät voivat kohdata haittoja kylässä, ja siten he voivat menettää identiteettinsä ja tunnetta yhteisöönsä kuulumisesta. Toisin sanoen, he voivat menettää kansalaisuudentunteen paikallisella alueella ja tulla sitten kielteiseksi (ts. Ne, joiden kansalaisuus on peruutettu). 3. Metsänhoidossa valtiolla on lakeja ja määräyksiä, mutta käytännössä tavanomainen järjestelmä määrittelee kenellä on pääsy metsävaroihin, kuka voi osallistua päätöksentekoon ja kuka voi hyötyä metsistä. Metsähankkeet jättävät nämä monimutkaisuudet usein huomiotta hankkeissaan; mikä johtaa projektin epäonnistumisiin ja kestämättömään metsänhoitoon. Tulosten perusteella teen johtopäätöksen, että osallistava metsäpolitiikka voi vahvistaa paikallista demokratiaa poliittisen hajauttamisen avulla. Siksi suosittelen kehitysjärjestöille ja hallituksille kiinnittämään huomiota, ja integroimaan paikallisen demokratian indikaattorit yrittäessään soveltaa globaalia metsäpolitiikkaa paikallisessa yhteydessä

‘We are not bad people’ bricolage and the rise of community forest institutions in Burkina Faso

From a critical institutionalism and institutional bricolage perspective, this article analyses what drives institutional change in the commons and the outcomes for forest and people. It builds on the comparison of three neighbouring villages in Burkina Faso that in 1989, expecting higher returns, agreed to release their common lands for the creation of a community forest called Chantier d’Aménagement Forestier (CAF) within an international forestry project. The project created new bureaucratic institutions to replace the pre-existing customary and socially embedded system. Decades later, the three villages display different institutional change pathways and outcomes: one village abandoned the CAF, converted, and sold its forest and land; another maintained the CAF; and a third operates in-between. Using qualitative research methods, we ask why and how these different change trajectories and outcomes occurred among villages of identical cultural and sociopolitical background. The results show that poor design and implementation of the new bureaucratic institutions, as well as their disrespect of customary and socially embedded rules, led to forestland disputes between the villages. The bureaucratic institutions failed to solve those disputes, effectively manage the forest, and share the benefits equitably. This caused local people’s discontent and prompted actions for change. Actors in diverse ways made use of their social networks, agency, and power relations within and between the villages to either reshape, re-interpret or reject the new forest institutions. These processes of institutional bricolage led to highly diverse trajectories of change. The findings demonstrate the crucial role of locals as agents of change from below and question universal claims in institutional theory on how institutions induce rule-guided behaviour and create path dependencies.Peer reviewe

What is the ‘problem’ of gender inequality represented to be in the Swedish forest sector?

Funding Information: We would like to thank our informants for their time and insights, as well as the wider international SEQUAL project (Social-ecological relations and gender equality: Dynamics and processes for transformational change across scales) members. We also thank the two anonymous reviewers who provided valuable comments on this article. This research is funded by the Swedish Research Council (project number 2018-00988 ). Publisher Copyright: © 2022 The AuthorsGender equality in natural resource management is a matter of sustainability and democracy for Sweden's government, however the country's forest remains a highly gender-segregated sector. We examine how gender inequality is problematized within Swedish forest and rural policy documents using the What's the problem represented to be? (WPR) approach. We build on previous efforts to investigate gender inequality in the forest sector by expanding the critical analysis to rural development policy. We conduct interviews with forest experts, owners, and practitioners to shed light on where there are gaps within the policy representations and uncover alternative policy options that are presented. Our findings corroborate that gender inequality is represented to be a technical problem, with policy measures aiming to increase the number of women within a forest sector that continues to maintain rigid conceptions about forestry production values. While there are claims of success in the increase of women within the sector in aggregate, there is little change in the numbers of women in decision-making positions. Forest policy relies upon women to bring growth and sustainability to the forest industry, while rural policy expects women to halt rural population decline. Our findings suggest that merely trying to fit more women into a mold that has been shaped for and by inflexible forestry and masculine values is an impediment not only to gender equality but also to the inclusion of other social groups and ideas in the changing rural landscapes of Sweden.Peer reviewe

Key Logics of International Forest Governance and SDG 15

Sustainable Development Goal 15 is strongly embedded in international forest governance and previous international conventions and agreements. These include the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), as well other international governance initiatives, particularly those concentrating on Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) such as the Bonn Challenge and the New York Declaration on Forests (NYDF). This chapter aims to identify the key logics of international forest governance tied to SDG 15. Based on a literature review and a chronological overview of interests, institutions and types of governance are provided and three key logics identified: production and market; environmental sustainability; and community and empowerment. All of these logics are partly reflected in SDG 15. However, the potential of SDG 15 to substantially contribute to the overarching SDG 17 of diminishing power asymmetries is not fully exploited. Indeed, the key actors involved in forest governance pursue an agenda that often neglects the interests of local people and communities. Driven by the dominant idea of international markets guiding the way forests and their products are thought about and handled, this agenda practically spurs biodiversity loss and climate change.Peer reviewe