Livelihood diversification and implications on poverty and environment in the Lake Victoria Basin

This paper on livelihood diversification is based on an ongoing study under VicRes programme being undertaken in the Lake Victoria Basin, in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. We examine how changing socio-economic and environmental conditions contribute to livelihood diversification, land-use changes, poverty reduction strategies and environmental conservation in the Lake Victoria Basin. The study was undertaken using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The qualitative methods included focused group discussions, key informant interviews and direct observations. Quantitative data were collected using a structured household questionnaire. Qualitative were analysed with the villagers by triangulation, while quantitative data were analysed using standard statistical methods. Findings from the study indicate that while agricultural production is prominent in the highland areas, the major activity in the lowland villages is fishing. Factors such as population increase, drought, and changes in macro and micro socio-economic conditions have resulted into livelihood diversification and land use changes in the Lake Victoria basin. Some of the livelihood activities influence the socioeconomic dynamics, natural resource management, and the environment, leading to increased land degradation, low agricultural productivity, water pollution, food insecurity and poverty. The study also established decreasing trends in land availability over time attributed mainly to increasing population pressure and livelihood diversification.Key words: Livelihood diversification, land use changes, poverty alleviation, environment, population dynamics, Lake Victoria Basin

Determinants of woody encroachment and cover in African savannas

Savanna ecosystems are an integral part of the African landscape and sustain the livelihoods of millions of people. Woody encroachment in savannas is a widespread phenomenon but its causes are widely debated. We review the extensive literature on woody encroachment to help improve understanding of the possible causes and to highlight where and how future scientific efforts to fully understand these causes should be focused. Rainfall is the most important determinant of maximum woody cover across Africa, but fire and herbivory interact to reduce woody cover below the maximum at many locations. We postulate that woody encroachment is most likely driven by CO2 enrichment and propose a two-system conceptual framework, whereby mechanisms of woody encroachment differ depending on whether the savanna is a wet or dry system. In dry savannas, the increased water-use efficiency in plants relaxes precipitation-driven constraints and increases woody growth. In wet savannas, the increase of carbon allocation to tree roots results in faster recovery rates after disturbance and a greater likelihood of reaching sexual maturity. Our proposed framework can be tested using a mixture of experimental and earth observational techniques. At a local level, changes in precipitation, burning regimes or herbivory could be driving woody encroachment, but are unlikely to be the explanation of this continent-wide phenomenon

Climate change effects on people’s livelihood

Generally climate is defined as the long-term average weather conditions of a particular place, region, or the world. Key climate variables include surface conditions such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) broadly defined climate change as any change in the state of climate which persists for extended periods, usually for decades or longer (Allwood et al. 2014). Climate change may occur due to nature’s both internal and external processes. External process involves anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, and volcanic eruptions. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) made a distinction between climate change attributable to human contribution to atmospheric composition and natural climate variability. In its Article 1, the UNFCCC defines climate change as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” (United Nations 1992, p. 7)

“Who took our land - the world bank or the state?” the land question in the state plantation forests in Tanzania: the case of the Sao Hill forests, 1962-2012

The Sao Hill plantation forest, with 135,903ha, is the biggest state plantation in Tanzania. Its history goes back to 1939. The postcolonial period tremendouslyincreased its acreage from 18,000ha in 1962 to 135,903ha by 2012. Despite the biggest share of the land it holds, there is little documentation by scholars, especially on the aspects of the source of capital and the process it went through to acquire land from customary owners in the 1970s. This article discusses the expansion strategies of the sole state-owned Sao Hill forests, with a glance at the source of capital and land for the expansion in postcolonial Tanzania. The paper raises the problems that arose because of the expansion and the response of customary land owners and the state between 1962 and 2012. It uses archival sources and interviews as the main sources of data to arrive at its conclusion. The main findings show that the World Bank directly and indirectly influenced the introduction of Sao Hill plantation forestry as it was its loan conditions that determined the size and geographical locations of the land to be planted trees. Therefore, the post -planting period experienced land contestations from the formerly customary land owners as the planting exercise’s pace was determined by the World Bank. Keywords: Tanzania, Mufindi, Sao Hill, forests, lan

Climatic and Socio-Economic Influences on Malaria and Cholera Risks in the Lake Victoria Region of Tanzania

This paper examines the relationships between socio-economic characteristics, vulnerability, and adaptation to climate-induced malaria and cholera in the Lake Victoria region, Tanzania. It focuses on the Biharamulo and Muleba Districts of the Kagera Region, located in the northwestern part of the country. The paper also aims at informing policy-making in response to climate change that is related to malaria and cholera. A variety of methods were employed in the collection and analysis of data for this study, including collection of secondary data, participatory discussions and stakeholder workshops, household interviews, and field observations. Data analysis was undertaken using the SPSS software. A random sample of 300 households was interviewed, 150 from each of the two villages (Bugarama and Chato), representing malaria and cholera case studies respectively. Interviews were undertaken with the heads of households. However, where other members of the household were present they were free to contribute. We selected these two villages because they are in areas with conditions suitable for studying highland malaria and cholera, respectively. It has been established that the vulnerability and impact of climate change-induced malaria and cholera are influenced by the socioeconomic characteristics of the different communities. Findings from this study show that the majority of respondents had similar perceptions regarding the causes and seriousness of malaria, factors that influence its severity, and how the disease can be controlled or treated, regardless of their levels of education or wealth. Furthermore, there is no clear correlation between the presence of stagnant water and the number of household members hospitalised due to malaria. These findings suggest that occurrence of malaria is associated with multiple factors beyond terrain features, including climate variability. The importance of climate variability on disease outbreak is revealed by the local understanding of the periods with malaria and cholera outbreaks. It is understood in the study area that there are more pronounced malaria and cholera outbreaks during periods with above-average rainfall. The study found that women, children, and the elderly are more vulnerable to malaria. Lack of insecticide treated bednets contributes to this vulnerability. Although more households are using bednets, they are often unable to afford enough of them for the entire household, due to large families and low incomes. Women and children are also exposed to mosquito bites while weeding bean fields. Men, who were reported by participants to spend much of the evening away from home and only return late at night, are less exposed to mosquito bites, and consequently less vulnerable to malaria. Many people use local herbs for the disease, which appears to be a crucial adaptation strategy, particularly given the high poverty level in the area. As for cholera, disease outbreaks were associated with unusually wet seasons. This was attributed to above-average rainfall during the wet seasons, when many toilets flood or collapse because of the sandiness of the soils. This caused the waste from the toilets to leak into the surroundings and often ending up in water bodies, such as the lake. Such waste can spread cholera organisms. Outbreaks were also associated with not using toilets and poor disposal of other wastes. Despite the fact that only a few households reportedly encountered cholera during the last outbreaks, it was evident that many people are vulnerable because of drinking untreated water. It was also evident that the community does not have adequate adaptation mechanisms for cholera. This situation calls for rigorous community health education.START, the Third World Academy of Sciences, and the UN Environment Programm