What Are The Cognitive Mechanisms That Underlie Our Theory Of Mind? Potential Insights From Information Theory

Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to infer mental states. The purpose of Study 1 was to reduce performance demands on a ToM test for forty (22 females) children (M age = 4.604; SD age = 1.128). Here, a low-uncertainty condition included a behaviour repetition manipulation, intended to increase success rate—but results did not confirm our hypothesis. Potential reasons for the results of Study 1 are discussed and tested in Study 2. The purpose of Study 2 was to determine the mechanism by which ToM operates in fifty-seven (26 females) adult participants (M age = 20.632; SD age = 3.368) by altering informational richness more directly. Results of Study 2 confirm that the mechanism by which ToM operates is via uncertainty reduction. These data motivate Study 3 in which child-appropriate vignettes will be used to address the limitations of Study 1 and implement the design of Study 2

Medication reviews and deprescribing as a single intervention in falls prevention: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: our aim was to assess the effectiveness of medication review and deprescribing interventions as a single intervention in falls prevention. METHODS:   DESIGN: systematic review and meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES: Medline, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, PsycINFO until 28 March 2022. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: randomised controlled trials of older participants comparing any medication review or deprescribing intervention with usual care and reporting falls as an outcome. STUDY RECORDS: title/abstract and full-text screening by two reviewers. RISK OF BIAS: Cochrane Collaboration revised tool. DATA SYNTHESIS: results reported separately for different settings and sufficiently comparable studies meta-analysed. RESULTS: forty-nine heterogeneous studies were included. COMMUNITY: meta-analyses of medication reviews resulted in a risk ratio (RR) of 1.05 (95% confidence interval, 0.85–1.29, I(2) = 0%, 3 studies(s)) for number of fallers, in an RR = 0.95 (0.70–1.27, I(2) = 37%, 3 s) for number of injurious fallers and in a rate ratio (RaR) of 0.89 (0.69–1.14, I(2) = 0%, 2 s) for injurious falls. HOSPITAL: meta-analyses assessing medication reviews resulted in an RR = 0.97 (0.74–1.28, I(2) = 15%, 2 s) and in an RR = 0.50 (0.07–3.50, I(2) = 72% %, 2 s) for number of fallers after and during admission, respectively. LONG-TERM CARE: meta-analyses investigating medication reviews or deprescribing plans resulted in an RR = 0.86 (0.72–1.02, I(2) = 0%, 5 s) for number of fallers and in an RaR = 0.93 (0.64–1.35, I(2) = 92%, 7 s) for number of falls. CONCLUSIONS: the heterogeneity of the interventions precluded us to estimate the exact effect of medication review and deprescribing as a single intervention. For future studies, more comparability is warranted. These interventions should not be implemented as a stand-alone strategy in falls prevention but included in multimodal strategies due to the multifactorial nature of falls. PROSPERO registration number: CRD4202021823

From Primates to Ants: Reviewing the Evidence of Numerical Cognition in Non-Human Species

The degree to which non-human animals can engage in numerical computations has been an area of considerable interest in the study of animal cognition. The present review summarizes previous literature examining numeracy in animals with a notable emphasis on the specific types of numerical computations animals are likely to engage in. Specifically, the present review summarizes literature examining both the Object File System and the Approximate Number System in a variety of non-human species. Conclusions of the existence of animal arithmetic proficiency in comparative psychology are critically analyzed

When You Smile, Do I Smile? A Proposed Study Examining Conscious Level Emotion Regulation in a Developmental Sample

The ability to conceal a proponent emotional response and instead, express a more socially appropriate facial expression has had phylogenetic and ontogenetic advantages throughout human evolution and development. Understanding the developmental trajectory of this type of emotion regulation is imperative and can be empirically examined using a facial mimicry paradigm to study inhibitory control. Facial mimicry enables an individual to imitate the emotional expression of a social other, whereas inhibitory control examines an individual’s ability to suppress a dominant responses in favour of a correct response. The present paper proposes a paradigm during which individuals are instructed to imitate the opposite facial expression of that displayed on a screen. In addition, the neural correlates of emotion regulation are proposed to be simultaneously measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Expected results are discussed with a critical focus on clinical implications for individuals with deficits in emotion regulation, in particular, those with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and individuals prone to psychopathic symptoms in adulthood

Early Childhood Specialization Among ECEC Educators and Preschool Children's Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This submission is for the supplemental materials associated with an article published in Early Childhood Research Quarterly (ECRQ)Educator early childhood specialization refers to educators having formal certifications, credentials, diplomas, and degrees in an early childhood or a related area (e.g., early childhood education, child development, child psychology, child education, and special education). It is used frequently as an indicator in early childhood education and care (ECEC) quality improvement and other initiatives. However, the literature linking educator early childhood specialization to child outcomes has yielded mixed findings. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the associations between educator early childhood specialization and children’s cognitive, academic, physical, social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes. We focused on preschool aged children. Searches of PsycINFO, ERIC, and Medline, websites of large databases, and reference sections of all included studies were conducted up to February 5, 2018. Title, abstract, and paper reviews were conducted by two independent raters to include studies that provided a statistical link between educator early childhood specialization and child outcomes. Sixteen eligible studies (21 samples, n=15,157 children) were included in the systematic review. Heterogeneity between studies was identified in terms of how educator early childhood specialization was operationalized, conceptualized, and measured. Results from the systematic review revealed very few significant associations. Five meta-analyses of homogenous studies revealed very weak positive associations between educator early childhood specialization and children’s language and social skills. No significant associations were identified for children’s mathematics, vocabulary, or letter identification skills. Methodological limitations of the literature and the current study, areas for future research, and implications for policy are discussed.This project was supported by a grant entitled What is the impact of early childhood education and care (ECEC) on children's developmental health (#234474) from the Canadian Institute for Health Research awarded to MP (http://www.cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/193.html). PSS is supported by an Applied Research Chair in Reproductive and Child Health Services Research

Is Educators’ Years of Experience in Early Childhood Education and Care Settings Associated with Child Outcomes? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This submission is for the supplemental materials associated with an article published in Early Childhood Research Quarterly (ECRQ)Despite extensive study, there is little consensus about the relationship between educators’ years of experience in early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings and children's outcomes. Our goal was to systematically review and meta-analyze the literature on educators’ years of experience and children's outcomes defined broadly. Three electronic databases (Medline, ERIC, PsycINFO), reference sections of eligible studies, and websites of large datasets were searched for studies published until February 5th, 2018. Studies that provided a statistical analysis of the association between educators’ years of experience and child outcomes for preschool-aged children in ECEC settings were included. Two independent reviewers screened titles, abstracts, and full publications for relevance and extracted data from all studies retrieved from our search. Thirty-two studies (based on 28,038 different children, and over 4000 educators) were included in the systematic review. Operationalization of educators’ years of experience varied across studies. Over 100 different measures were used to assess child outcomes across studies. Meta-analyses were conducted for receptive vocabulary, letter identification, numerical problem solving, positive behavior, and social skills and problem behavior. All were non-significant. Results from the systematic review also showed very few and weak associations between educators’ years of experience and child outcomes. Findings were unrelated to a series of moderators explored. Our findings do not provide empirical support for use of educator years of experience as a quality indicator in the oversight of ECEC programs. More research that takes into consideration the multi-faceted, complex and dynamic nature of ECEC services is very much needed.This research was supported by a grant entitled “What is the impact of early childhood education and care (ECEC) on children's developmental health” (#234474) from the Canadian Institute for Health Research awarded to MP (http://www.cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/193.html). PSS is supported by an Applied Research Chair in Reproductive and Child Health Services Research

Multidomain trials to prevent dementia: addressing methodological challenges

Background Multidomain trials to prevent dementia by simultaneously targeting multiple risk factors with non-pharmacological lifestyle interventions show promise. Designing trials to evaluate the efficacy of individual interventions and their combinations is methodologically challenging. Determining the efficacy is, nevertheless, important to individuals, payers, and for resource allocations to support intervention implementation. Main body The central rationale for seminal trials improving cardiovascular health or reducing falls risk in older adults is that multifactorial conditions may be amenable to improvement by simultaneously targeting multiple modifiable risk factors. Similar reasoning underlies lifestyle interventions to reduce dementia risk using combinations of physical exercise, cognitive training, diet, amelioration of vascular-metabolic risk factors, and improving sleep quality. Randomizing individuals with at least two modifiable risk factors to “standardly tailored” interventions to mitigate their risk factors, versus a comparator arm, will yield an unbiased estimate of the cumulative average effect of modifying more versus fewer risk factors. The between-group difference in the cognitive primary outcome will reflect both the main effects of the mitigated risk factors, as well as their synergistic effects. However, given the positive trial results, there are inherent challenges in quantifying post hoc which components, or combination of components, were responsible for improvements in cognition. Here, we elaborate on these methodological challenges and important considerations in using a standardly tailored design with two arms (one consisting of multidomain interventions tailored to participants’ risk profiles and another consisting of active control conditions). We compare this approach to fully factorial designs and highlight the disadvantages and advantages of each. We discuss partial solutions, including analytical strategies such as risk reduction scores that measure reductions in the number or severity of risk factors in each study arm. Positive results can support the causal inference that between-group differences in the primary cognitive outcome were due to risk factor modification. Conclusion Standardly tailored designs are pragmatic and feasible evaluations of multidomain interventions to reduce dementia risk. We propose sensitivity and exploratory analyses of between-group reductions in the severity of risk factors, as a methodology to bolster causal inferences that between-group differences in the primary cognitive outcome are due to the risk factors modified.Medicine, Faculty ofNon UBCNeurology, Division ofReviewedFacultyResearche

Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis assessing the effectiveness of deprescribing in falls prevention in older people

Introduction One of the known risk factors for fall incidents is the use of specific medications, fall-risk-increasing drugs (FRIDs). However, to date, there is uncertainty related to the effectiveness of deprescribing as a single intervention in falls prevention. Thus, a comprehensive update of the literature focusing on all settings in which older people receive healthcare and all deprescribing interventions is warranted to enhance the current knowledge. Methods and analysis This systematic review protocol follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A systematic search was performed in Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO (2 November 2020). We will also search in trial registers. We will include randomised controlled trials, in which any deprescribing intervention is compared with usual care and reports falls as an outcome. Both title and abstract screening and full-text screening will be done by two reviewers. The Cochrane Collaboration revised tool of Risk of Bias will be applied to perform risk of bias assessment. We will categorise the results separately for every setting. If a group of sufficiently comparable studies will be identified, we will perform a meta-analysis applying random effects model. We will investigate heterogeneity using a combination of visual inspection of the forest plot along with consideration of the chi(2) test and the I-2 statistic results. We have prespecified several subgroup and sensitivity analyses. Ethics and dissemination Ethics approval is not applicable for this study since no original data will be collected. The results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publication and conference presentations. Furthermore, this systematic review will inform the recommendations of working group of polypharmacy and FRIDs of the anticipated World's Falls Guidelines. PROSPERO registration number CRD42020218231