Damage assessment within the Kathmandu valley’s World Heritage Monument Zones after 2015 Gorkha Earthquake

Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal experienced a cultural catastrophe in the aftermath of the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake (Mw=7.8) which destroyed hundreds of historical and cultural monuments. Five out of the seven mountain zones within Kathmandu’s UNESCO World Heritage Sites suffered damage ranging from the complete collapse of several temples near Hanumandhoka’s Durbar Square to partial damage at Changu Narayan. This study presents the results of reconnaissance surveys conducted in December 2017 and June 2018 within the Pashupati and Changu Narayan monument zones investigating the plausible causes of damage incurred. Geotechnical assessment of soils reveals the presence of gravelly sand at Pashupati and clayey silt at Changu Narayan. The soil-water retention characteristics and strength parameters of these soil were also obtained in the laboratory. Evidence of rotation and differential settlements in the foundations of the ancient structures was not observed suggesting that soil liquefaction had not taken place at these locations. Structural damage patterns observed at these sites indicated a lack of periodic maintenance and low bending and shear stiffness of the masonry walls of the temples. This study suggests engineering interventions and monitoring systems that could safeguard these structures in the event of future earthquakes

Identifying archaeological evidence of past earthquakes in a contemporary disaster scenario: case studies of damage, resilience and risk reduction from the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake and past seismic events within the Kathmandu Valley UNESCO World Heritage Property (Nepal)

The 2015 Gorkha Earthquake was a humanitarian disaster but also a cultural catastrophe that damaged and destroyed historic monuments across Nepal, including those within the Kathmandu Valley UNESCO World Heritage Property. In the rush to rebuild, traditionally constructed foundations are being removed and replaced with modern materials without assessments of whether these contributed to the collapse of a monument. Generally undertaken without scientific recording, these interventions have led to the irreversible destruction of earlier subsurface phases of cultural activity and the potential loss of evidence for successful traditional seismic adaptations and risk reduction strategies, with no research into whether modern materials, such as concrete and steel, would offer enhanced resilience. In response to this context, multidisciplinary post-disaster investigations were undertaken between 2015 and 2018, including archaeological excavation, geophysical survey, geoarchaeological analysis, linked to architectural and engineering studies, to begin to evaluate and assess the damage to, and seismic adaptations of, historic structures within Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley. Where possible, we draw on archaeoseismological approaches for the identification and classification of Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAEs) at selected monuments damaged by the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake. Lessons learned from evidence of potential weaknesses, as well as historic ‘risk-sensitive tactics’ of hazard reduction within monuments, are now being incorporated into reconstruction and rehabilitation initiatives alongside the development of methods for the protection of heritage in the face of future earthquakes

Indigenous and Scientific Knowledge of Soil Regulation Services, and Factors Effecting Decision-Making in Agricultural Landscapes in the Terai Plains of Nepal

Rapid degradation of soil regulation services is a growing concern for agricultural producers worldwide, with the potential for adverse impacts on agricultural productivity, food security, and livelihoods. Yet, data integrating observations of soil nutrient and physical status with farmers’ knowledge of soil fertility is lacking, while landscape-level empirical assessments remain limited. In this paper, it is argued that a deeper understanding of the benefits and trade-offs of management practices currently employed by farmers to secure soil nutrients could help to promote improvements in natural resource management, agricultural productivity and efficiency. Using the case of the Central and Western Terai Plains of Nepal in 2012–2014, rice-cultivated soil parameters were estimated, and 354 respondents were interviewed to determine the cropping systems, soil nutrient status and risks, indigenous soil classification systems, and key biophysical, institutional, economic and risk perception factors effecting decision-making. Findings reveal farmers are acutely aware of the main causes of soil degradation and until today, these issues continue to be of critical importance. To counter this degradation, farmers employ a diversity of landscape-level practices to secure optimal crop yields and soil nutrients. However, farmers have limited access to agricultural extension services and scientific monitoring and apply fewer mineral fertilisers than previously reported. Additional investments are required to optimize farmers’ practices and soil regulation services, such as cooperation for knowledge innovation systems, public/private extension, organisation for co-management, integrated nutrient management, and private forestry on farms. The case illustrates local knowledge and incremental efforts to adapt to emerging risks remain the foundation to implement spatially targeted conservation measures and design adaptive land use plans