Can We Agree on What Robots Should be Allowed to Do? An Exercise in Rule Selection for Ethical Care Robots

Future Care Robots (CRs) should be able to balance a patient’s, often conflicting, rights without ongoing supervision. Many of the trade-offs faced by such a robot will require a degree of moral judgment. Some progress has been made on methods to guarantee robots comply with a predefined set of ethical rules. In contrast, methods for selecting these rules are lacking. Approaches departing from existing philosophical frameworks, often do not result in implementable robotic control rules. Machine learning approaches are sensitive to biases in the training data and suffer from opacity. Here, we propose an alternative, empirical, survey-based approach to rule selection. We suggest this approach has several advantages, including transparency and legitimacy. The major challenge for this approach, however, is that a workable solution, or social compromise, has to be found: it must be possible to obtain a consistent and agreed-upon set of rules to govern robotic behavior. In this article, we present an exercise in rule selection for a hypothetical CR to assess the feasibility of our approach. We assume the role of robot developers using a survey to evaluate which robot behavior potential users deem appropriate in a practically relevant setting, i.e., patient non-compliance. We evaluate whether it is possible to find such behaviors through a consensus. Assessing a set of potential robot behaviors, we surveyed the acceptability of robot actions that potentially violate a patient’s autonomy or privacy. Our data support the empirical approach as a promising and cost-effective way to query ethical intuitions, allowing us to select behavior for the hypothetical CR

Aiming at a data driven definition of volunteer types: The key to improved volunteer management practices

Due to the huge heterogeneity of volunteering, generalizability of context specific findings from the literature regarding volunteer management practices is often limited. Furthermore, it seems that practitioner recommendations are consequently often too narrow or at times contrasting. To deal with this gap, we aim at a data driven approach to cluster volunteers into more homogeneous types, in order to enable (a) comparability of various volunteer contexts, and (b) differentiation of volunteer management strategies. Therefore, we apply an exploratory factor analysis, a cluster analysis and a canonical correlation analysis on a representative nationwide survey in Germany regarding volunteering behavior. Findings are however not robust and not suitable for further substantial interpretation, as the multivariate characteristics of the constructs probed for in the German Survey on Volunteering (GSV) are of limited quality (at least for our statistical analysis). Hence, we clarify the value of more elaborate questions in future large-scale data collection, and we discuss the remaining trade-off in the literature regarding generalizable but limited findings, versus more robust but context specific findings

The impact of face-to-face street fundraising on organizational reputation

Although many stakeholders perceive face-to-face street fundraising as unpleasant, nonprofit managers encourage it as a way to attract donors. To understand the long-term effects of this fundraising method, we used a mixed-methods experimental design to investigate how face-to-face street fundraising affects organizational reputation and stakeholder support intentions in comparison with letter fundraising. The findings reveal that face-to-face street fundraising has a significant negative influence on the stakeholders' perceptions of an organization. Further, qualitative datashow that the negative perception originates primarily from perceived pressure, distrust, and obtrusion, which are triggered by face-to-face street fundraising. Our studythus reveals long-term reputational consequences that nonprofit organizations should consider before deciding on fundraising methods

Social Movement Structures in Relation to Goals and Forms of Action: An Exploratory Model

ABSTRACT This article describes a theoretical taxonomy of the structural features of social movements. We begin by using two classification criteria to analyze the types of relations that characterize the structure of social movements. From there, we look at how differences in structure relate to different goals and forms of action. We then derive a four-fold classification system based on formalization and hierarchy of relationships. For each classification we provide case descriptions of social movements (or parts thereof) using literature on how different movement structures support different types of goals and forms of action. Furthermore, we discuss the dynamics of social movements (or parts thereof) and how their classification may evolve. By doing so, we illustrate how changes in structure, goals, and forms of action mutually influence each other. RÉSUMÉ Cet article dresse une taxonomie théorique des caractéristiques structurelles des mouvements sociaux. Nous utilisons d’abord deux critères de classification pour analyser les types de relation propres à la structure des mouvements sociaux. Par la suite, nous observons comment des différences de structure coïncident avec des buts et des formes d’action différents. Nous développons ensuite un système de classification quadruple fondé sur la formalisation et l’hiérarchisation des relations. Pour chacune des classifications, nous fournissons des descriptions de cas de mouvements sociaux (ou de parties de ceux-ci) en recourant à des écrits sur la manière dont des structures de mouvement différentes entraînent des buts et des formes d’action différents. En outre, nous discutons des dynamiques des mouvements sociaux (ou de parties de ceux-ci) et comment leur classification pourrait évoluer. Par ce moyen, nous illustrons comment des changements de structure, de but et de forme d’action s’influencent réciproquement

Austria in the COVID-19 Pandemic - Citizens' Satisfaction with Crisis Measures and Communication

Background: We assess satisfaction about various aspects of the 2020 COVID-19 crisis for a representative sample of 1798 respondents living in Austria. Survey questions were added to a previously planned data collection, based on concrete questions discussed at a BKA Clearing Board meeting (Tuesday, 14.04.2020: Subarbeitsgruppe Psycho-Soziale-Effekte im Rahmen von "COVID-19 / Future Operations"). Findings: Overall, people living in Austria are satisfied with the various crisis management elements of the COVID-19 pandemic, as answers are mainly at the positive side of the response scale that ranges from -3 (Very unsatisfied) to +3 (Very satisfied). Citizens are most satisfied with how well they implement the measures of the federal government themselves (and/or their employer) to overcome the Corona crisis, and about how they are able to comply with these measures. In contrast, they are least satisfied with how national media report on the measures (Newspapers, TV, etc.). Splitting-up satisfaction evaluations for gender, age, region, level of education, occupation, or sector of employment does show no or some small (but no substantial) differences for particular subgroups. We can observe an age effect for satisfaction on how others deal with the government's COVID-19 measures. This means: the older people are, the more satisfied they are about how others comply with the COVID-19 measures. Self-employed respondents are least satisfied with how the government is dealing with the crisis and communicating the measures. Students are most satisfied about that. However, it has to be noted that this data is from 17 April to 29 April (2020), which is just before loosening, in a second round, many of the restrictions on small businesses

Reputation Star Society: Are star ratings consulted as substitute or complementary information?

To simplify decision making processes, online platforms frequently display reputation star ratings as an indication of the quality of a product, service, or organization. Can information provided by such star ratings draw away attention from other information? This is an important question for platform developers to adjust the use of such ratings. We conduct a between-subjects laboratory experiment (n=121) where we manipulate the difference between the reputation star ratings of two social profit organizations, and ask respondents to indicate which organization they prefer. Applying eye-tracking technology, we analyze how the visual attention between the treatment conditions differs. Our findings show that reputation star ratings are consulted as complementary information, rather than as substitute information. Moreover, the results suggest that the lack of stars - not the presence of more stars - attracts visual attention

Citizens prosocial behavior in times of crisis

Austrians felt they could help others less in the corona-lock down, compared to one year before the crisis, but still feel helped by others. This is the output of a quantitative comparison of survey data collected in 2019 and 2020. Further qualitative exploration suggests that the social distancing is a major reason for not being able to help others, as social contact is often seen as a condition to help others. However, having the feeling of being helped by others – and thus be more dependent on others – relates negative with how people help others themselves, and with prosocial intentions and public service motivation. Moreover, people that felt more helped by others were also less satisfied about the corona measures and how other citizens (did not) comply with these measures

Under blood pressure : differentiated versus undifferentiated marketing to increase blood donations

Despite strong evidence in current marketing theory and practice that a differentiated marketing approach increases recruitment success, blood services worldwide often use undifferentiated marketing strategies to address new blood donors. Relying on the assumption that differentiated marketing is highly promising; the authors developed an online experiment among 838 participants who had not donated blood during the past 10 years. The experiment tested the effects of a differentiated in comparison to an undifferentiated marketing campaign on three marketing outcomes: (1) awareness, (2) intention, and (3) behavioral enactment. Surprisingly and in contrast with most marketing studies in the for-profit context, the results of the blood donation experiment suggest that differentiated marketing is not more effective than undifferentiated marketing. This finding has important implications for marketing strategies and actions of blood services

In the name of the stakeholder: An assessment of representation surpluses and deficits by nonprofit leaders

Nonprofit leaders face the challenge of making deci- sions within a complex environment of heterogeneous and often competing stakeholder claims. In such a set- ting, leaders not only make judgments about the power of their organization's stakeholders but they also make conscious choices about which stakeholders they per- sonally represent while making organizational decisions. This study uses insights from stakeholder theory and agency theory to investigate (1) how nonprofit leaders' perceptions of stakeholder power and stake- holder representation are interrelated across a wide range of stakeholder groups and organizations, and (2) how perceptions of power and representation differ between board members and executive managers. Drawing on data from 491 nonprofit leaders, we find evidence of stakeholder representation surpluses and deficits for several stakeholders, although perceptions of these deficits and surpluses differ considerably between board members and managers. Our study holds important implications for nonprofit governance, the practice of stakeholder analysis, and the use of stakeholder constructs in future empirical research

COVID-19 Pandemie in Österreich – Zufriedenheit der Bürger*innen mit Maßnahmen und Kommunikation

Wir bewerten die Zufriedenheit mit verschiedenen Aspekten der COVID-19-Krise 2020 für eine repräsentative Stichprobe von 1798 in Österreich lebenden Befragten. Eine zuvor geplante Datenerhebung wurde um Erhebungsfragen ergänzt, die auf konkreten Fragen basieren, die in einer Sitzung des BKA-Clearing Boards (Dienstag, 14.04.2020: Subarbeitsgruppe Psycho-Soziale-Effekte im Rahmen von "COVID-19 / Future Operations"). Insgesamt sind in Österreich lebende Menschen zufrieden mit den abgefragten Aspekten der COVID-19 Krise: Sämtliche Mittelwerte liegen im positiven Bereich der Skala (also über 0 auf der Skala von -3 bis +3). Die größte Zufriedenheit zeigen die Befragten mit sich selbst im Umgang mit der von Regierung und Arbeitgeber\*in gesetzten Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung der Krise. Das betrifft sowohl die Umsetzung als auch die Einhaltung der Maßnahmen durch die Befragten. Im Gegensatz dazu ist die Zufriedenheit am geringsten, wenn es um die Befolgung der Maßnahmen durch Nachbarn und andere Bürger\*innen sowie um die Berichterstattung über die Maßnahmen in den österreichischen Medien geht. Die Schichtung nach Geschlecht, Alter, Bundesland, Bildungsabschluss, Beruf oder beruflichem Sektor zeigt geringe, aber keine bedeutenden Unterschiede zwischen den jeweiligen Untergruppen. Die Splittung nach Altersgruppen zeigt, dass je älter die Befragten sind, desto zufriedener sind sie mit der Befolgung der COVIC-19 Maßnahmen durch andere (Mit)Bürger*innen / die Bevölkerung. Mit der Regierung, sowohl hinsichtlich des Umgangs mit der Krise als auch die Kommunikation der Maßnahmen betreffend, sind Selbstständige am wenigsten und Studierende am meisten zufrieden. Zu beachten ist allerdings, dass die Datensammlung vor der zweiten Lockerung der Restriktionen für (kleine) Unternehmen durchgeführt wurde